TheBookThatmadeyourworld.pdf

PRAISEFORTheBookThatMadeYourWorld:HowtheBibleCreatedtheSoulofWesternCivilization

FortoolongnowtheWesthasflirtedwithaNaturalisticworldviewthathasjeopardizedthemostsacredaspects of life and living. Vishal shows how profoundly and meaningfully the Bible does have theprescriptionforbringinghealingtothenationsthathaveneverknownhumandignityorsocial,economic,andpoliticalfreedoms.

RAVIZACHARIAS,author,WalkingfromEasttoWestandBeyondOpinion

Withsolid,detailedinformation,clarityofpresentation,andlogicalforce,VishalMangalwadienablesanyonewilling toseehowour“Western”worlddependsentirelyuponwhat theBible,and italone,teachesaboutrealityandhowtolive.

DALLASWILLARD,author,TheDivineConspiracyandTheGreatOmission

NotsinceFrancisSchaeffer’sHowShouldwethenLive?in1977havewehadsolucidandfar-ranginganexplanationofwhattroublestheglobalcommunity.

RANALDMACAULAYMA(Cantab),founderof‘ChristianHeritage,’Cambridge,England

Discovermovinghistoryyouwishyouwereexposedtoinschool,pageturningprosethatcapturesthepastinepicsignificance,andhopethatcouldonlybeexpressedbyonewhohastastedthenatureoftheGodwhocreates,caresfor,andlovespeople,manyofwhomnowfacetheultimatechallenge.

MICHAELAUSTIN,communicationconsultant,NewYork

Inpolitesociety,themerementionoftheBibleoftenintroducesacertainmeasureofanxiety.AseriousdiscussionontheBiblecanbringoutrightcontempt.Therefore, it ismostrefreshingtoencounter thisengagingandinformedassessmentoftheBible’sprofoundimpactonthemodernworld.

STANLEYMATTSON,founderandpresident,C.S.LewisFoundation

Anintriguingandnecessaryread.Vishalreferencescompeting“truthclaims”ofotherworldviews,anddiscussestheirinadequaciesforprovidinghopeforaworldengagedineverincreasingupheaval.I’mpersuadedthatreadingthisbookwillbecomeanimportantpartoftheChristianuniversitycurriculum.

EUGENEHABECKER,president,TaylorUniversity,Upland,Indiana

TheIndianperspectiveisabreathoffascinatingfreshairforAmericanreaders.Iwishandpraythatitfindsreaderswillingtohavetheirmindsshakenandtheirhearts,yes,theirhearts,stirredaswell.

JAMESW.SIRE,author,TheUniverseNextDoorandHabitsoftheMind

Vishal’sbookisoneofakind;vastinscope,penetratinginitsdepth,andpropheticinitsmessage.IfwefailtolistenandrecovertheimportanceoftheBibleinpersonalandpubliclife,thenthesunmaysetontheWest.Thisbookisatractforourtimesandamustreadforanyoneconcernedwithimpactingourculture.

ARTLINDSLEY,author,C.S.Lewis’sCaseforChrist

TheBookThatMadeYourWorldexaminestheBible’sworld-changinginfluence.Itsinsightsgiveaclearcall to remember what has been forgotten. Utilizing a unique global perspective, Vishal MangalwadideliversbothavitalwarningandaclearhopeforWesternculture.

SCOTTB.KEY,professorofphilosophy,CaliforniaBaptistUniversity

He sees what made us strong in the past and the consequences of our rejection of Biblical truths inshapingourlivesandournation.Maywehaveearstohearandeyestosee.

MARYPOPLIN,professor,ClaremontGraduateUniversity;author,FindingCalcutta

BiblicalilliteracyisalmostuniversalinEuropetoday.WeneedVishal’sclear,prophetic,Easternvoicetojoltusbacktorealitybeforeourrichbiblicalheritageslipsbeyondourgrasp.

JEFFFOUNTAIN,director,SchumanCentreforEuropeanStudies,theNetherlands

Inthiswide-rangingandinsightfulbook,VishalMangalwadinotonlyenablesustoseefromhisspecialperspectivethesignificanceoftheBibleinestablishingmanyoftheblessingofWesternculturethatwetooeasilytakeforgranted,butalsotoseemoreclearlythedangersinvolvedinturningawayfromabiblicalworldview.IheartilyrecommendittoallwhowantfresheyestoseeandahearttocareabouttheworldtowhichtheLordhascalledus.

GARYINRIG,seniorpastor,TrinityEvangelicalFreeChurch,Redlands,CA

The Book That Made Your World reinforces my 8-year-old assessment that Vishal MangalwadiunderstandsAmericabetterthanourownleadersdo.

HUGHMACLELLAN,JR,executivechairman,TheMaclellanFoundation,Inc.

Mangalwadi’s perspective is that of a widely-read Christian from the “Global South.” From it heprovidesasober,unflatteringassessmentofouridentitycrisis,showinghowitresultsfromanunder-nourished,severelyatrophiedworld-view,increasinglydivorcedaswearefromthebiblicalfoundationthatoncegaveusbothcoherenceandaselftranscendingsenseofpurpose.

DAVIDLYLEJEFFREY,FRSC,distinguishedprofessorofliteratureandthehumanities(HonorsCollege);distinguishedseniorfellowanddirectorofManuscriptResearchinScriptureandTradition,Institutefor

StudiesinReligion,BaylorUniversity;guestprofessor,PekingUniversity,Beijing

ThoughIdonotagreewitheverythinghewrites,Ithinkeverypersonwhowantstounderstandthemodernworldmustreadthisbook.

PRABHUGUPTARA,FreemanoftheCityofLondonandoftheWorshipfulCompanyofInformationTechnologistsandCharteredFellowoftheCharteredInstituteofPersonnelandDevelopment;Fellow:of

theInstituteofDirectors,oftheRoyalCommonwealthSociety,andoftheRoyalSocietyfortheEncouragementoftheArtsCommerceandManufactures—Switzerland

A small change in direction could have altered theTitanic’s fate. Many are seeing the West headedtowardscatastrophe,butthishighlyreadable,Easternoverviewofourhistorycouldreshapeourfuture.

DAVIDMCDONALD,HealthTeamsInternationalandMarsHillFoundation,WA

Placethisbookatthetopofyour“mustreadstack”orKindlequeue.YouwillfindyourselfcheeringastheBiblereceivesthecredititdeserves.Vishal’suniqueviewofWesternCivilizationthroughthelensoftheEastisbrilliant!

JAND.HETTINGA,authorandpastor,Seattle,WA

VishalMangalwadistandsoutsideWesterncivilizationtodayandpeersinwitheyesenrichedbystudiesinEasternthoughtandaperceptivenessunspoiledbyWesternnihilism.Heseeswhatweapparentlynolonger see—that Western “exceptionalism” has its taproot in The Bible, and warns us of the comingculturaldemise.Thisbookmustberead!

JIMMOTTER,president,NORGANIXBiosecurityanddirector,TheAreopagus

VishalMangalwadioffersarefreshinglydifferentperspectivefromwhatstudentsaretaughtaboutwhathasmadeAmericasuchasourceofhope,freedom,andproductivity.HeexplainsthatAmericabecameashininglightbecauseitsfoundingcitizensreadandrereadonebook.Neglectthatbook,hewarns,andthelightwilldim.

RICHARDGREGG,publisher,SueGreggCookBooks

ManymodernintellectualshaveridiculedtheBiblesoloudlyandsolongthatmuchof theAmericanpublicisnotevenawareofitsindispensableroleinthemakingofouruniquecivilization.InTheBookThatMadeYourWorlditisanIndianscholarthatturnsthetablesonWesternsecularists,shiningthelightoftruth.Ibelievethiscompellingandilluminatingscholarshipwillserveasaneffectivetextbookforyearstocome.

DR.MARKJHARRIS,president,BusinessforCommunityFoundation

Read this book for a rich history lesson and a moving reminder of how the Bible has empoweredfreedom,education,technology,science,andtheverysoulofWesterncivilization.VishalhasauniquewayofbridgingthegapfromtheEasttotheWest,speakingwithpropheticalarmaboutwhatcivilizationwillfaceifitforgetstheBible’spositiveinfluenceandfoundationalvalue.

ROBHOSKINS,CEO,OneHope

VishalMangalwadirecountshistoryinverybroadstrokesalwaysusinghiscross-culturalperspectivesforhighlightingthemanybenefitsofbiblicalprinciplesinshapingcivilization.

GEORGEMARSDEN,authorofFundamentalismandAmericanCulture

IhavebeenagreatadmirerofVishalMangalwadi,andhislatestworkonlyenhancesmyadmiration.HisuniquelyIndianperspectiveonthecentralityoftheBibleforthedevelopmentoftheWestanditsemphasisonhumandignitymakesTheBookthatMadeYourWorldessentialreadingforanythinkingChristian.AnditservesasastarkwarningtotheWesternworldthatweforgettheBibleandtheChristianfaithonlyatgreatperiltoourlibertyandevenoursurvival.

CHUCKCOLSON,founderofPrisonFellowshipandtheColsonCenterforChristianWorldview

THEBOOKTHAT

MADEYOURWORLD

OTHERBOOKSBYVISHALMANGALWADI

TheWorldofGurus

InSearchofSelf:BeyondtheNewAge

TruthandTransformation:AManifestoforAilingNations

LegacyofWilliamCarey:AModelforTransformingCulture

MissionaryConspiracy:LetterstoaPostmodernHindu

India:TheGrandExperiment

QuestforFreedomandDignity:Caste,ConversionandCulturalTransformation

Astrology

THEBOOKTHAT

MADEYOURWORLD

HOWTHEBIBLECREATEDTHESOULOFWESTERNCIVILIZATION

VISHALMANGALWADI

Allrightsreserved.Noportionofthisbookmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans—electronic,mechanical,photocopy,recording,scanning,orother—exceptforbriefquotationsincriticalreviewsorarticles,withoutthepriorwrittenpermissionofthepublisher.

PublishedinNashville,Tennessee,byThomasNelson.ThomasNelsonisaregisteredtrademarkofThomasNelson,Inc.

ThomasNelson,Inc.,titlesmaybepurchasedinbulkforeducational,business,fund-raising,orsalespromotionaluse.Forinformation,[email protected].

ScripturequotationsmarkedKJVarefromtheKINGJAMESVERSION.

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataMangalwadi,Vishal.Thebookthatmadeyourworld:howtheBiblecreatedthesoulofWesterncivilization/VishalMangalwadi.p.cm.Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.ISBN978-1-59555-322-5 1. Bible—Influence—Western civilization. 2. Bible—Influence—Modern civilization. 3. Christianity and culture—India. 4. Christiancivilization.I.Title.BS538.7.M362011220.09—dc22

2010051897

PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica

1112131415QGF654321

FortheSincerelyRespectedPublicIntellectualMemberofParliamentand

FormerMinistertotheGovernmentofIndiaHonourableArunShourie,

whosecriticismsoftheBiblepromptedthisinquiry

CONTENTS

ForewordbyJ.StanleyMattson,Ph.D.Prologue:WhyThisJourneyintotheSouloftheModernWorld?

PARTI:THESOULOFWESTERNCIVILIZATION1.TheWestWithoutItsSoul:FromBachtoCobain

PARTII:APERSONALPILGRIMAGE2.Service:OraTickettoJail?3.Quest:CanBlindMenKnowtheElephant?4.Self:AmILikeDogorGod?

PARTIII:THESEEDSOFWESTERNCIVILIZATION5.Humanity:WhatIstheWest’sGreatestDiscovery?6.Rationality:WhatMadetheWestaThinkingCivilization?7.Technology:WhyDidMonksDevelopIt?

PARTIV:THEMILLENNIUM’SREVOLUTION8.Heroism:HowDidaDefeatedMessiahConquerRome?9.Revolution:WhatMadeTranslatorsWorldChangers?

PARTV:THEINTELLECTUALREVOLUTION10.Languages:HowWasIntellectualPowerDemocratized?11.Literature:WhyDidPilgrimsBuildNations?12.University:WhyEducateYourSubjects?13.Science:WhatIsItsSource?

PARTVI:WHATMADETHEWESTTHEBEST?14.Morality:WhyAreSomeLessCorrupt?15.Family:WhyDidAmericaSurgeAheadofEurope?16.Compassion:WhyDidCaringBecomeMedicalCommitment?17.TrueWealth:HowDidStewardshipBecomeSpirituality?18.Liberty:WhyDidFundamentalismProduceFreedom?

PARTVII:GLOBALIZINGMODERNITY19.Mission:CanStoneAgeTribesHelpGlobalization?20.TheFuture:MusttheSunSetontheWest?

Appendix:TheBible:IsItaFaxfromHeaven?NotesWithGratitudeAbouttheAuthorIndex

FOREWORD

early-nineteenth-centuryclassic,DemocracyinAmerica.TheinvaluableinsightsofanobservantFrenchvisitortoAmericaarenowa“mustread”forvirtuallyeverycollegestudentinAmerica.Inasomewhatsimilarvein,Indianscholar,author,andworldwidelecturerVishalMangalwadioffers

withinthesepagesafreshandwide-rangingassessmentoftheBible’simpactonWesternculture.TheBookThatMadeYourWorldcontainsthecarefulinvestigationandobservationsofan“outsider”viewingWesternculturefromwithin.WhatMangalwadidiscoverswillsurprisemany.HisbooktellsthestoryoftheBible’samazinginfluenceuponthedevelopmentofmodernWesternsociety.ItshowswhyaseriousreassessmentoftheBible’srelevancetocontemporarypublicdiscourseandeducationatall levels—publicandprivate,secularandreligious—isbothurgentlyneededandmuchtobedesired.A culture can barely begin, let alone sustain, any serious intergenerational attempt to comprehend,

interpret,andrespondtotheriddlesoflifeandtheuniverseunlessithassomereasonablycomprehensiveworldview.InTheClosingoftheAmericanMind,AllanBloom—aJewishprofessor—acknowledgedthat it was the Bible that gave critical impetus to, and sustained, the West’s intellectual endeavor ofexaminingallgreatideas,betheytrueorfalse.Bloomwrote,

IntheUnitedStates,practicallyspeaking,theBiblewastheonlycommonculture,onethatunitedthesimpleandthesophisticated,richandpoor,youngandold,and—astheverymodelforavisionoftheorderofthewholeofthings,aswellasthekeytotherestofWesternart,thegreatestworksofwhichwereinonewayoranotherresponsivetotheBible—providedaccesstotheseriousnessofbooks.Withitsgradualandinevitabledisappearance,theveryideaofsuchatotalbookisdisappearing.Andfathersandmothershavelosttheideathatthehighestaspirationtheymighthavefortheirchildrenisforthemtobewise—aspriests,prophetsorphilosophersarewise.Specializedcompetenceandsuccessareallthattheycanimagine.Contrarytowhatiscommonlythought,withoutthebookeventheideaofthewholeislost.1

MangalwadiunderscoresthefactthatitwastheWesternChurchthatgavebirthtotheuniversity,inits

determined and passionate effort to pursue Truth. Following in the train of the great universities ofBologne,Paris,Oxford,andCambridge,America’sfirst institutionofhighereducation,Harvard,wasfoundeduponthemottoVeritas—Truth.Overthecourseofthelastcentury,however,themottohasbeenstrippedofallmeaning.“Leadingthinkers”withintheacademyhavesucceededinpersuadingmanythat“truth,”assuch,islargelyafunctionofsocialconvention.Thereigningclimateofpessimismaboutourability to truly know anything significant was most powerfully articulated by the late Richard Rorty,arguablyoneofthemostinfluentialAmericanthinkersofthelastfortyyears.InWhat’s theUseofTruth?, Rorty contends that there is no privileged position, or any kind of

authority,thatcanprovidearationallyjustifiablestandpointfromwhichonecanknowthe“real”world.Thewordtruth,heinsists,hasnosignificantmeaning.Traditionaldistinctionsbetweentrueandfalsemustbeabandoned.Intheirplace,wecanonlythinkandspeakintermsofwebsoflanguagethatdisplaygreaterorlesserdegreesof“smoothness”andhomogeneity.ForRorty,everyassertionoftruthisonlyprovisional—atitsverycore,aformofmake-believe—becauselanguageitselfismerelyaproductofhumansociety.Ourwordsrefertonothingexceptinsofarastheyinterpretourexperience.Accordingly,

Rortyrejectedanyandalleffortstorenderrealityasmeaningfulthroughanymeansotherthanthatofembracingitasalinguisticallyconstructed,self-referentialhumansocialreality.This very argument, however, also deprived Rorty of any rational basis to support his, or anyone

else’s,defenseofanysocialstructureorviewofreality,howevercompellingordesirable.Indeed,thosewhoembracesuchaviewconsistentlycannoteveninvestigatethehistoricalconditionsthatestablishedthe social structures they desire. In The Future of Religion, Rorty acknowledged this profoundintellectual disability, conceding, “It may be just an historical accident that Christendom was wheredemocracywasreinventedfortheuseofmasssociety,oritmaybethatthiscouldonlyhavehappenedwithinaChristiansociety.Butitisfutiletospeculateaboutthis”(emphasisadded).2Predictably, Rorty’s work, and that of his peers within the academy, has led to a wholesale

abandonmentofanyaspirationtopursuetruth,knowledge,andrationalityasunderstoodoverthelongcourse of Western civilization. The intellectual culture that Rorty represented not only denigrates theclassictextsthatcreatedthemodernworldofjustice,freedom,andeconomicopportunity,butalsodeniesanyresponsibilitytointroducestudentstothosefoundationalideasthatwouldmostcertainlycontradictthereigningphilosophicalideology.Insodoing,thelongvalued“freemarketplaceofideas”hasbeenmateriallyandlamentablycompromised.Forifthereisnotruthtobediscovered—ifalltruthismerelyafunctionofsocialconstructs—thenreasonitselfhasnogenuineauthority,and in itsplace,academicfashion and marketing determine what a culture believes. More foreboding still, the risk is real thatoutright coercion may replace the authority that the modern world once ascribed to Truth. Questionsconcerning the nature of reality, the meaning of life, of honor, of virtue, of wisdom, and of love areunderstoodtobenothingmorethancuriousrelicsofold-fashionedthinking.C.S.Lewis,nostrangertothedictatesofacademicfashion,creditedOwenBarfield,afellowInkling,

forhisdeliverancefromwhatBarfieldreferredtoas“chronologicalsnobbery,”thatis,

theuncriticalacceptanceoftheintellectualclimatecommontoourownageandtheassumptionthatwhateverhasgoneoutofdateisonthataccountdiscredited.Youmustfindoutwhyitwentoutofdate.Wasiteverrefuted(andifso,bywhom,where,andhowconclusively)ordiditmerelydieawayasfashionsdo?Ifthelatter,thistellsusnothingaboutitstruthorfalsehood….ourownageisalso“aperiod”andcertainlyhas,likeallperiods,itsownillusions.3

Wheredoesthisleaveusindividuallyandculturally?IfweopttofollowRorty’sleadandthefashion

oftheday,ouronlyrecourseistojoinCandideinthecultivationof“ourgarden.”Nothingis“meaningful”exceptinsofarasitsatisfiesourindividualneedsanddesires.InabandoningTruth,weabandontheonlyviable means of empowering real community—i.e. through the humble, and yes, “age-old” commonpursuitoftheGood,theTrue,andtheBeautiful.Clearly,our“ironicage”desperatelyneedsamorereliablemirrorbywhichtorecoverandassessour

almostforgottenpast.Weneedtore-envisionacommonanduniversalhopeforhumansociety.Weneedtolearnagainfromthesourcesthatoncesodeeplycaptivatedourimaginations,orderedourreason,andinformedourwills.ItwasfromandthroughtheseverysourcesthattheWestrealizedthetransformationofindividuallives,families,andwholecommunitiesthatgaveshapetothemodernworldasweknowit.Giventheincreasingintellectualandspiritualchaosofourtime,itstrikesmeasextremelyworthwhiletotracethoseuniquefeaturesoftheWestthathelpedfosterthesefertilechanges.Vishal Mangalwadi’s immense contribution over the course of the following pages may appear

counterintuitive.Ifso,itispreciselybecausehisarduousresearchestablishesthefactthattheBibleanditsworldview,contrarytocurrentprevailingopinion,combinedtoserveasthesinglemostpowerfulforceintheemergenceofWesterncivilization.WhereBloomlamentstheclosingoftheAmericanmind,Mangalwadibringsarefreshingoptimism.As

it happens, he began studying the Bible seriously at an Indian university only after discovering thatWestern philosophy had lost all hope of finding truth; for all intents and purposes it had become

“essentiallybankrupt.”TheBiblearousedhisinterestinthehistoryofthemodernworld.Hisstudyofworldhistory, in turn,gavebirth toarenewedhopethatresounds throughout thepagesof thisratherextraordinarybook.MangalwadiisanintellectualfromtheEast.Hepossessesanintimateknowledgeofthevastrangeof

Easternthoughtandculturesandhasalsobenefitedgreatlyfromextensiveexposuretotheintellectualandspiritual traditionsand institutionsof theWest.Thisaccess to the thoughtofbothEastandWesthasaffordedhimauniqueperspectiveintothemindandheartofWesternculture.Itenableshimtospeaktothecrisisofourtimewithincisiveclarityandpropheticcourage.ThesepagesintroduceustothepoorestofthepoorinruralIndia,aswellastotheseminalthinkersof

Westerncivilization.Throughout,Mangalwadiablydemonstratesthatthebiblicalworldviewemergesasthe critical and unmistakable source of the unique vision of Western thought, values, and institutions.SpeakingtotheissuesraisedinthecourseofRorty’swritings,hedocumentsthattheBible,understoodtobe therevelationofGod tohumanity,provided thebasis foranadmittedly imperfectbutnonethelessremarkablyhumanesociety.Itwas,aboveall,acivilizationinwhichtruthwasunderstoodtobereal,wherethecollectivepursuitofvirtueshapedbehavior,andtheredemptiveworkofGodinthepersonofJesusChristprovidedaradicalandhistoricallyverifiabletransformingresponsetotheabyssofhumanselfishness,corruption,andsin.Weavingcarefulanalysis togetherwithcaptivatingstories,Mangalwadioffershis readersconcrete

encounterswiththefullrangeofhumanvirtueandcorruption.HesoundsaclarioncalltotheWestnottoforgetbuttorememberandreturntotheuniquesourceofitsverylife.InthetraditionofEzekiel,thistwenty-first-century“watchmanonthewall”hasspoken.Mayhiswordstakerootandfosteramuch-neededrenewaloftheAmericanmindandspirit.

J.STANLEYMATTSON,PH.D.

FounderandPresidentofTheC.S.LewisFoundation,Redlands,California,StanleyMattsonearnedhisPh.D.inAmericanIntellectualHistoryfromtheUniversityofNorthCarolina–ChapelHillin1970.ApastmemberofthefacultyofGordonCollege,;headmasteroftheMaster’sSchoolofW.Simsbury,Connecticut;anddirectorofcorporateandfoundationrelationsfortheUniversityofRedlands,Dr.Mattson established the C. S. Lewis Foundation in 1986. He has since served as director of itsprogramsinOxfordandCambridge,England.ThefoundationiscurrentlyengagedinthefoundingofC.S.LewisCollegeasaChristianGreatBooksCollege,withaschoolofthevisualandperformingarts,justnorthoftheFiveCollegeareainwesternMassachusetts.(Forfurtherinformation,visittheC.S.LewisFoundation’sWebsiteatwww.cslewis.org.)

Prologue

WHYTHISJOURNEYINTOTHESOULOFTHEMODERNWORLD?

In1994,India’sRomanCatholicbishopsinvitedoneofourmostinfluentialpublicintellectuals,Dr.ArunShourie,totellthemhowaHindulooksatChristianmissions.Sincehisillustriousfamilywasaproductofmissionaryeducation,thebishopsmayhaveexpectedhimtocommendmissions.Shourie,however,condemnedmissionsasaconspiracyofBritishimperialism.WhenBritaincolonizedIndiamilitarilyandpolitically,Shourieargued,missionarieswerebroughtin

tocolonizetheIndianmind.Mission’shesaid,weretheworstformofcolonialism,sincetheyharvestedoursouls;theysubvertedourculture.Fromreproachingmissions,ShouriewentontoattackJesusandridiculetheBibleasanirrationalandimmoralbook.Hethenexpandedhislectureintotwobooks.1Shourie’sbookscameoutwhenthemilitantHinduBharatiyaJanataParty(BJP)waspreparingtofight

anationalelectionwhereitemergedasalargeenoughpartyinParliamenttoformacoalitiongovernment.TheBJPusedShourie’sbooktopushitsplatform.ItsaidthattheliberalHinduparties,suchastheIndianNationalCongress,shouldbevotedoutbecauseliberalHinduismhadallowedChristiansandMuslimstoconvertourpeopleandsubvertIndianculture.OncethemightofanationalpartygotbehindShourie’sbooks,theybecamenationalbestsellers.His

thesis was translated into Indian vernaculars, and excerpts were published as syndicated columns innationalandregionalnewspapers.I already knew that the Western missionary movement, which the BJP portrayed as the villain of

modernIndia,was,infact,thesinglemostimportantforcethatcreatedcontemporaryIndia.*Yet,thankstoShourie’sbooks,thefrontlinemissionaries,whocamefromthesouthtoserveNorthIndia,begantobeaccusedasdangerousCIAagents.ThesearesomeofIndia’sbestpublicservants,sacrificiallyengagedinupliftingthe“untouchable”victimsofHinduphilosophyanditsoppressivecastesystem,buttheywerepresumedtohaveCIAfundingtoprepareforthePentagon’sneo-colonialdesigns.TheBible—thebookthatbeganandsustainedIndia’seducation,emancipation,andall-aroundmodernization—wasdenouncedasfitonlyforfools.ArunShouriehadgone toIndia’sbestChristiancollegeandearnedadoctoratefromaprestigious

AmericanuniversityestablishedbyaProtestantdenominationtoteachtheBible.HehadservedasanofficerofWorldBankandheadedIndia’slargestnewspaperchain.Heisamoralcrusaderwhommanyofuslovedandstilldo.WhydidalearnedmanlikehimhavesuchapoorunderstandingoftheBibleanditsrole in creating the modern West and modern India? Why didn’t he understand that the education hereceived,America’seconomicsystemthathestudied, thefreepressthathechampioned,thepoliticallibertiesthathecherished,andIndia’spubliclifethathefoughttokeepcorruption-freehadallcomefromtheBible…althoughmuchofithadnowbeensecularizedandevencorrupted?Dr.Shourie’signorancewasnothisfault.TheproblemwasthatevenhisChristianprofessorsinIndia

andinAmericahadlittleideaoftheBible’simportanceandhowitcreatedthemodernworld,includingits universities, science, economy, and freedoms. Ignorance and unbelief are understandable, butdistortingone’sownhistoryiscostlybias.Itunderminestheintellectualandmoralfoundationsofthe

modernworld.ThisreignofignorantbiasinWesternuniversitiesraisesthequestion:MustthesunsetontheWest?I responded to Dr. Shourie’s first book in a series of letters that were published as Missionary

Conspiracy:Letters toaPostmodernHindu. IrespondedtohissecondbookinmyprefacetoGeneEdwardVeith’sbook,Fascism:ModernandPostmodern.2MyWebsitewww.RevelationMovement.comwillsoonbegintoanswerthedetailsofhiscriticismsoftheBible.TheBookThatMadeYourWorldcelebratesthe400thanniversaryoftheKingJamesBible,whichwasthebookofthelastmillennium.Thisbookisalsomeanttoservethosewho,likeShourie,seektobuildtheirnations.Alittlehumilitywillenableanyonetobenefitfromunderstandinghowthemodernworldwascreated.ThesunneednotsetontheWest.EuropeandAmericacanberevivedagain.Lightcanagainshineon

nationsthathavebeenconfusedandmisledbyWesternuniversitiesandmedia.“Myth”hasmanymeanings.Someofthemarehelpful.However,ifmythisaviewofrealityinvented

exclusivelybythehumanmind,then,bydefinition,atheismisamyth.DuringthetwentiethcenturythismythcausedhavocinEasternEurope.NowithastheWestbyitsthroat.AcursoryglancemaygiveanimpressionthatthisisabookabouttheBible.Thosewhoactuallyreadit

willknowthatthisisaboutgreatliteratureandgreatart;greatscienceandliberatingtechnology;genuineheroismandnationbuilding;greatvirtuesandsocialinstitutions.Ifyouhaveazillionpiecesofapuzzle,wouldyoubeginassemblingthemintoonepicture,withoutknowingwhatthatpictureissupposedtolooklike?TheBiblecreatedthemodernworldofscienceandlearningbecauseitgaveustheCreator’svisionof what reality is all about. That is what made the modern West a reading and thinking civilization.Postmodern people see little point in reading books that do not contribute directly to their career orpleasure. This is a logical outcome of atheism, which has now realized that the human mind cannotpossiblyknowwhatistrueandright.ThisbookisbeingpublishedwithaprayerthatitwillhelpreviveaglobalinterestintheBibleandinallthegreatbooks.

VISHALMANGALWADIDECEMBER2010*ThisincludesmanyBritishevangelicalswhoservedascivilservants,soldiers,judges,andteachers.

PartI

THESOULOFWESTERNCIVILIZATION

TheBiblebroughtitsviewofGod,theuniverse,andmankindintoalltheleadingWesternlanguagesandthusintotheintellectualprocessofWesternman…Sincetheinventionof

printing,theBiblehasbecomemorethanthetranslationofanancientOrientalliterature.Ithasnotseemedaforeignbook,andithasbeenthemostavailable,familiar,anddependablesource

andarbiterofintellectual,moral,andspiritualidealsintheWest.—H.GRADYDAVIS

ChapterOne

THEWESTWITHOUTITSSOUL

FROMBACHTOCOBAIN

Fortwohundredyearswehadsawedandsawedandsawedatthebranchweweresittingon.Andintheend,muchmoresuddenlythananyonehadforeseen,oureffortswererewarded,anddownwecame.Butunfortunatelytherehadbeenalittlemistake:Thethingatthebottomwasnotabedofrosesafterall;itwasacesspoolfullofbarbedwire…Itappearsthatamputationofthesoulisn’tjustasimplesurgicaljob,likehavingyourappendixout.Thewoundhasatendencyto

goseptic.—GEORGEORWELL

NotesontheWay,1940

OnApril8,1994,anelectricianaccidentallydiscoveredadeadbodyinSeattle,Washington.Ashotgunhadblownthevictim’sheadintounrecognizablebits.ThepoliceinvestigationconcludedthatthevictimofthisghastlytragedywastherocklegendKurtCobain(b.1967)andthathehadcommittedsuicideafewdaysearlier.Cobain’spreviousattemptsatsuicidebydrugoverdosehadbeenunsuccessful.Hisbeautifulwife,singerCourtneyLove,issaidtohavecalledthepolicemultipletimestohavethemconfiscatehisgunsbeforehekilledhimselforharmedothers.Cobain,theleadsingerandgiftedguitaristfortherockbandNirvana,capturedhisgeneration’slossof

anchor, center, or soul so effectively that their albumNevermind sold ten million copies, displacingMichaelJacksonatthetopofthecharts.Thephrase“nevermind”means“don’tbother,”“don’tconcernyourself.”Whyshouldyoumind,if

nothingistrue,good,orbeautifulinanyabsolutesense?Shouldamanbebotheredabouthisadorabledaughter’songoingneedforafather?“Nevermind”isalogicalvirtueforanihilistwhothinksthatthereisnothingouttheretogivemeaningandsignificancetoanythinghere—beityourdaughter,wife,orlife.Incontrast, the modern West was built by people who dedicated their lives to what they believed wasdivine,true,andnoble.NirvanaistheBuddhisttermforsalvation.Itmeanspermanentextinctionofone’sindividualexistence,

thedissolutionofourillusoryindividualityintoShoonyta(void,nothingness,oremptiness).Itisfreedomfrom our misery-causing illusion that we have a permanent core to our being: a self, soul, spirit, orAtman.HereisasamplelyricexpressingCobain’sviewofsalvationassilence,death,andextinction:

Silence,HereIam,HereIam,Silent.DeathIswhatIam,Gotohell,Gotojail…Die1

AsthenewsofCobain’ssuicidespread,anumberofhisfansemulatedhisexample.RollingStonemagazinereportedthathistragicdeathwasfollowedbyatleastsixty-eightcopycatsuicides.2

“Hey,hey,ho,ho,WesternCivhasgottogo!’’TheStanfordstudentsofthe1960swhochantedforthedemiseoftheWesterncivilizationweredisgustedwithhypocrisyandinjusticesintheWest.Yet,theirrejectionofthesouloftheircivilizationyieldedsomethingverydifferentfromtheutopiatheysought.DianaGrains,inRollingStone,notedthatpriortothe1960s,teenagesuicidewasvirtuallynonexistentamongAmericanyouth.By1980almostfourhundredthousandadolescentswereattemptingsuicideeveryyear.By1987suicidehadbecomethesecondlargestkillerofteens,afterautomotiveaccidents.Bythe1990s,suicidehadslippeddowntonumberthreebecauseyoungpeoplewerekillingeachotherasoftenas they killed themselves. Grains explained these rising figures among the offspring of the ’60sgeneration:

The 1980s offered young people an experience of unsurpassed social violence and humiliation. Traumatized by absent or abusiveparents,educators,policeandshrinks,stuckinmeaninglessjobswithoutalivablewage,disorientedbydisintegratinginstitutions,manykidsfelttrappedinacycleoffutilityanddespair.Adults…[messed]-upacrosstheboard,abandoninganentiregenerationbyfailingtoprovidefororprotect themorprepare themfor independent living.Yetwhenyoungpeoplebegantoexhibitsymptomsofneglect,reflectedintheirratesofsuicide,homicide,substanceabuse,schoolfailure,recklessnessandgeneralmisery,adultscondemnedthemasapathetic,illiterate,amorallosers.3

Accordingtohisbiographers,Cobain’searlyyearshadbeenhappy,fullofaffectionandhope.Butby

thetimehewasnineyearsoldCobainwascaughtinthecrossfirebetweenhisdivorcingparents.Likefartoo many marriages in America, his parents’ marriage had devolved into an emotional and verbalbattlefield.OneofCobain’sbiographers,commentingonafamilyportraitwhenKurtwassix,said,“It’sapictureofafamily,butnotapictureofamarriage.”4After thedivorce,Kurt’smotherstarteddatingyoungermen.Hisfatherbecameoverbearing,moreafraidoflosinghisnewwifethanoflosingKurt.Thatparental rejection left him displaced, unable to find a stable social center, incapable of maintainingconstructiveemotionaltieseitherwithhispeersorwithhisparents’generation.ThatinstabilityinflictedadeepwoundinCobain’ssoul thatcouldnotbehealedbymusic, fame,money,sex,drugs,alcohol,therapy,rehabilitationordetoxprograms.HisinneranguishmadeiteasyforhimtoaccepttheBuddha’sfirstnobletruththatlifeissuffering.PsychotherapyfailedCobain.Havingquestionedtheveryexistenceofthepsyche(roughly,theselfor

soul),secularpsychologyisnowadisciplineindecline.SigmundFreudandCarlJungbelievedintheexistenceofself,5buttheirfollowersnowrecognizethattheirfaithin“self”wasaresidualeffectoftheWest’sChristianpast—Jung’sfather,forexample,wasaclergyman.Jung’s truly secular followers, such as James Hillman, are recasting the essence of his theory. An

increasing number of thinking people are recognizing that theoretically it is impossible to practicepsychologywithouttheology.SixcenturiesbeforeChrist,theBuddhaalreadyknewthatifGoddoesnotexist,thenthehumanselfcannotexisteither.Therefore,hedeconstructedtheHinduideaofthesoul.Whenonestartspeelingtheonionskinofone’spsyche,hediscoversthatthereisnosolidcoreatthecenterofone’sbeing.Yoursenseofselfisanillusion.Realityisnonself(anatman).Youdon’texist.Liberation,theBuddhataught,isrealizingtheunrealityofyourexistence.ThisnihilismislogicalifyoubeginwiththeassumptionthatGoddoesnotexist.However,itisnot

easytolivewiththeconsequencesofthisbelief,orrather,thisnonbeliefinone’sownself.Tosay“Ibelievethat‘I’don’texist”canbedevastatingforsensitivesoulslikeCobain.Hismusic—alternatelysensitiveandbrash,exhilaratinganddepressed,loudandhaunted,anarchicandvengeful—reflectedtheconfusionhesawinthepostmodernworldaroundhimandinhisownbeing.Whilehewascommittedtoasmallsetofmoralprinciples(suchasenvironmentalismandfatherhood),hewasunabletofindastableworldviewinwhichtocenterthoseprinciples.He was naturally drawn to the Buddha’s doctrine of impermanence: there is nothing stable and

permanent in the universe. You can’t swim in the same river twice because the river changes every

moment,asdoesahumanbeing.Youarenotthesame“thing”thatyouwereamomentago.Cobain’sexperience of the impermanence of an emotional, social, spiritual center to his life had tragicconsequences. He adopted the philosophical and moral emptiness that other bands lauded as the“HighwaytoHell.”6

MUSICAFTERGOD’SDEATH

GermanphilosopherFriedrichNietzsche(AD1844–1900)realizedthathavingkilledGod,EuropecouldnotpossiblysavethecivilizationalfruitsofitsfaithinGod.ButnotevenNietzscherealizedthatonephilosophicalimplicationofGod’sdemisewouldbethedeathofhisownself.ForfifteenhundredyearspriortoNietzsche,theWesthadfollowedSt.Augustine(AD354–430)inaffirmingeveryhumanbeingasatrinityofexistence(being),intellect,andwill.AfterdenyingtheexistenceoftheDivineSelf,itbecameimpossibletoaffirmtheexistenceofthehumanself.Therefore,manyintellectualsarerevertingtotheBuddhistideathattheselfisanillusion.AscontemporaryJungianpsychologistPaulKuglarexplained,inthepostmodernphilosophy,Nietzsche(thespeakingsubject)isdead—heneverexisted,forindividualityisonlyanillusioncreatedbylanguage.7Deconstructionistsblamelanguageforcreatingtheillusionoftheself,buttheBuddhablamedthemind.

ItcannotbeGod’simage.Therefore,themindhadtobeaproductofprimevalcosmicignorance,Avidya.TheBuddha’srejectionoftheselfmadesensetotheclassicalskepticssuchasPyrrhoofElea(360–270BC),whotraveledtoIndiawithAlexandertheGreatandinteractedwithBuddhistphilosophers.AfterreturningtoGreece,heestablishedanewschoolofskepticalphilosophytoteachthatnothingistrulyknowable. If so, why should anyone pay philosophers to teach anything? No wonder education,philosophy,andsciencedeclinedinGreece.Denyingtherealityofaspiritualcoreastheessenceofeveryhumanbeingmakesithardtomakesense

ofmusic,becausemusic,likemorality,isamatterofthesoul.Thosewhothinkthattheuniverseisonlymaterialsubstanceandthesoulisanillusionfindithardtoexplainmusic.Theyhavetoassumethatmusicevolvedfromanimals,butnoneofourallegedevolutionarycousinsmakemusic.(Somebirdsdo“sing,”butnoonehasproposedthatwe,orourmusic,evolvedfromthem.)CharlesDarwinthoughtthatmusicevolved as an aid to mating. That might be believed if rapists took bands to lure their victims. Byevolutionarypsychology,rapecouldbeseenasanaturalformofmatingandmoralityanarbitrarysocialcontrol.Musicservesnobiologicalpurpose.AsBono,theleadsingerforU2putit,“musicisamatterofthe

spirit.”SomecontemporarymusicmovestowardGod—forexample,GospelMusic.Othergenres—forexample,theBlues—mayberunningawayfromGodandseekingredemptionelsewhere.Nevertheless“bothrecognizethepivotthatGodisatthecenterofthejaunt.”8EvenintheBible,allpropheticpoetryisnotsingingpraisestoGod.BeginningwithJob,biblicalpoetryincludespenetratingquestioningofGodinthefaceofsufferingandinjustice.MusicthatblamesGodforevil,affirmsGodastheonlyavailablesourceofmeaningandourrighttopassmoraljudgment.TheBuddhistskepticismthatPyrrhobroughttoEuropeislogicalandpowerful.TheWestescapedits

paralyzing influence only because thinkers such as St. Augustine succeeded in refuting it. AugustineaffirmedthecertaintyofthehumanselfbecausetheBibletaughtthatGodexistedandhadcreatedmaninhisownimage.Augustinealsoaffirmedthevalidityofwords.HebelievedlanguagecancommunicatetruthbecausecommunicationisintrinsictothetriuneGodandmanismadeintheimageofaGodwhocommunicates.Now,havingrejectedthosebiblicalfoundations,theWesthasnobasisforescapingtheBuddha’sradicalpessimism.Inspiteof—orperhapsbecauseof—his innerchaos,Cobainremainedsopopular that in2008the

musicindustryrankedhimasthenumberone“DeadArtist.”HisalbumsoutsoldElvisPresley’s.Years

afterhisdeath,in2002hiswidowwasabletosellthescrapsandscribblesinhisjournalstoRiverheadBooksfor(reportedly)fourmilliondollars.Twodecadesago,apublisheranywhereintheworldwouldhaverejectedhisnotesasmeaningless,misspelledgraffiti.At thedawnof thetwenty-firstcenturyinAmerica,culturalgatekeepersrightlyrecognizethatCobainrepresentsAmerica’ssoullessnessbetterthanmostcelebrities.Inasampleofrelativelymeaningfulmeaninglessness,hewrote:

Ilikepunkrock.Ilikegirlswithweirdeyes.Ilikedrugs.(ButmyBodyAndmindwon’tallowmetotakethem.)Ilikepassion.Ilikeplayingmycardswrong.Ilikevinyl.Ilikefeelingguiltyforbeingawhite,Americanmale.Ilovetosleep.Iliketotauntsmall,barkingdogsinparkedcars.I like tomakepeoplefeelhappyandsuperior in theirreactiontowardsmyappearance.I like tohavestrongopinionswithnothingtobackthemupwithbesidesmyprimalsincerity.Ilikesincerity.Ilacksincerity…Iliketocomplainanddonothingtomakethingsbetter.9

IhaveseenentriessimilartoCobain’sjournalsandlyricsinstudents’privatediariesinartexhibitions

inAmericancolleges.PriortoCobain,inthe1960sand’70s,counterculturalstudentsatthesecollegesbelievedtheywereonthecuspofinauguratingutopia.ByCobain’stimetheyknewthatnihilismleadsonlytoescapism.StevenBlushstudiedthemusicoftheearly1980sthatdirectlyprecededCobainbothchronologicallyandstylistically.Popularlyitiscalled“hardcore,”agenremarkedbyitsbrashnessandintentionalexistenceoutsidethemainstream.Heconcluded:

Hardcore was more than music—it became a political and social movement as well. The participants constituted a tribe untothemselves.Someofthemwerealienatedorabused,andfoundescapeinthehard-edgedmusic.Somesoughtabetterworldoratearingdownofthestatusquo,andwereangry.Mostofthemsimplywantedtoraisehell.Starkanduncompromising. . .Lotsof[messed]upkids“foundthemselves”throughhardcore…theaestheticwasintangible.Mostbandscouldn’treallyplaythatwell,andtheir songs usually lacked craft. They expended little effort achieving prevailing production standards. However, they had IT—aninfectiousblendofultra-fastmusic,thoughtprovokinglyrics,andf[orget]-youattitude.10

Thepostmodern“rebelswithoutacause”wereLivinginaworldofmyown.11

Cobain’smusicappealedtocontemporaryAmericabecauseitwasafull-throttleddisharmonyofrage,anguish,hatred,despair,meaninglessness,andobscenity.Hissongtitlesincluded“IHateMyself,IWanttoDie”and“RapeMe”(laterchangedto“WaifeMe”).MostofwhatCobainsangcannotbedeciphered,andmanyofhislyricsthatcanbedecipheredhavenoapparentmeaning.Whetherheknewitornot,hislyricswereZenkoans,counter-rationalsayingssuchas“whatisthesoundofonehandclapping?”Suchwordsdonotmakesensebecause(intheabsenceofrevelation)realityitselfmakesnosense.Wordsaremerelymantras—soundswithoutsense—tobechantedorshouted.*CobaincommittedsuicidebecauseNothingnessastheultimaterealitydoesnothingpositive.Itcannot

providejoytotheworld,letalonemeaningorhopeforthemessinone’slife.Itsonlyconsequenceistoinspirepeopletoseekanexitfromtheworld—Nirvana.Acultureofmusicdoesnotflourishinthesoilofnihilism.Cobain’sgiftasamusicianblossomedbecausehehadinheritedauniquetraditionofmusic.Musicseemsanatural,perhapsevenessential,partoflifetotheWesternmindbecauseithasbeenan

integralpartoftraditionalworshipandeducation.Forexample,OxfordandCambridgeuniversitieshaveplayedpivotalrolesinshapingthesecondmillennium.However,apersonwhohasnevervisitedthesecitiesmaynotknowthattheyarecitiesofchurchesandchapels.Thechapelisthemostimportantbuildingintraditionalcollegesandapipeorganisoftenthecenterpieceofachapel.Thatisnotthecaseineveryculture.Turkmenistan is the latest country to put restrictions on music: on state holidays, in broadcasts by

televisionchannels,atculturaleventsorganizedbythestate,inplacesofmassassembly,andatweddingsandcelebrationsorganizedbythepublic.12NationssuchasSaudiArabiahavehadrestrictionsonmusic

foralongtime.InIranandAfghanistan,womencannotsingontheradio,letaloneontelevisionorinpersonbeforemixedaudiences.Inpost-SaddamIraq,radicalMuslimshaveassassinatedsellersofmusicCDs.Mosquesdonothavekeyboards,organs,pianos,orchestras,orworshipbandsbecauseaccordingtotraditionalIslam,musicisharaamorillegitimate.**TheseculturesseeWesternmusicasinextricablymixedwithimmoraldebauchery.Forthem,musicians

suchasKurtCobainareundesirablerolemodels.Indeed,onthecoverofhisalbumNevermind,Cobainbrazenlydepictedthevalueshelivedby:aninfantwithalongpenisunderwaterreachingouttoadollarbillonafishhook.Onthebackcover,Cobain’smascot,achipmunk,sitsonavagina.Opendebaucherywasapartof“pagan”musicuntiltheBibleextricatedmusicfromitbyrecenteringthelocusofthemusictoGod.

Donotgetdrunkonwine,whichleadstodebauchery.Instead,befilledwiththeSpirit…SingandmakemusicinyourhearttotheLord,alwaysgivingthankstoGodtheFatherforeverything,inthenameofourLordJesusChrist.13

Buddhist monks in Asia developed sophisticated philosophies, psychology, rituals, and psycho-

technologies to try to escape life and its sufferings. They perfected techniques such asVipasana* tosilence not just their tongues but also their thoughts. Buddhism originated in India and prior to itsdisappearanceenjoyedpowerfulpoliticalpatronageforcenturies.ItbuiltsuchmassivemonasteriesthatBuddhistart isacherishedaspectofournationalheritage.Yet,BuddhismleftnodiscerniblemusicaltraditionorinstrumentinIndia.NoBuddhistmonkstartedabandsuchasNirvana,becauseinBuddhismsalvationisnotaheavenfilledwithmusic.14Asapessimisticphilosophyofsilenceitcouldnotproducemusicofhopeandjoy.Buddhismcouldnotcelebrateexistencebecauseitsawsufferingastheessenceoflife.SomeformsofmodernBuddhismhaveembracedmusic,partiallybecauseoftheeffortsofWesternconverts,suchasKurtCobain,whograftedtheWesterntraditionofreligiousmusicintotheBuddhistfaith.TosaythatmusicisanewphenomenoninBuddhisttemplesisnottosuggestthatpre-BuddhistTibetor

Chinahadnomusic.15Musicisintrinsictotheuniverseandtohumannatureevenifsomeworldviews,includingDarwinism,donotunderstand,recognize,orpromoteit.China’sfertilitycultsandsexualritesinvolvedchoirsofboysandgirlssingingalternatelyandtogethertosymbolizeYinandYangdualismasearlyas2000BC.Athousandyearspriortothat,theworshippersinSumero-Mesapotamiausedmusicintheirtemplerituals.ThemusicalragasofHindumagicalritualshavesurvivedforthirty-fivehundredyears.Mostofthe

Vedasarehymnsandchants.TheVedicpriestsunderstoodsoundaswellasanyoneelseintheworldanddevelopedahighlycomplexsystemofchanting,evenifHindumonksandpriestsdidnotdevelopmusicintothecomplexmediumthatWesternmusicbecame.Thankfullythisischangingnow.Bollywoodhasplayed a great role in inspiring some Hindu ashrams to develop great music. It has also raised thestandardofQawwali,whichbeganasapartofSufitradition,*butisnowlovedbyHindusaswellasbyMuslims—includinginPakistan.

WRITINGMUSICINTOTHEWEST’SDNA

St.Augustine,theauthorofthesix-volumeOnMusic,wasakeyfigureininsertingmusicintoWesterneducationandworldview.HisfirstfivevolumesaretechnicalandcouldhavebeenwrittenbyaGreekphilosopher.ButAugustinewasmostexcitedabouthissixthbook,whichgivesabiblicalphilosophyofmusic.Musicis,ofcourse,integraltotheBible,inwhichthelongestbookisPsalms.Thelastpsalm,forexample, asks creation to praise the Lord with the trumpet, lute, harp, tambourine, strings, pipe, andcymbals.

Whyare thesephysical instrumentsable tomakemusic?Augustinesawthat thescientificbasisoressence of music lies in mathematical “numbers” or scores at the core of creation. Since music ismathematical,Augustineargued,itmustberational,eternal,unchangeable,meaningful,andobjective—itconsistsofmathematicalharmony.Wecannotmakeamusicalsoundfromjustanystring.Togetaprecisenote, a string has to have a specific length, thickness, and tension. This implies that the Creator hasencoded music into the structure of the universe. This insight was not new. It had been noted byPythagoras(570–490BC),whoseschoolPlatoattendedbeforestartinghisAcademy.Augustinepromotedthis“pagan”insightbecausetheBiblepresentedaviewofcreationthatexplainedwhymattercouldmakemusic.Augustinetaughtthatwhilethismusicalcodeis“bodily”(physical),itismadeandenjoyedbythesoul.

Forexample,thebookofJobdealswiththeproblemofinexplicablesuffering.InitGodhimselftellsJoboftheconnectionbetweenmusicandcreation:“WherewereyouwhenIlaidthefoundationoftheearth?…whenthemorningstarssangtogetherandallthesonsofGodshoutedforjoy?”16TheBibletaughtthatasovereignCreator(ratherthanapantheonofdeitieswithconflictingagendas)

governstheuniverseforhisglory.HeispowerfulenoughtosavemenlikeJobfromtheirtroubles.ThisteachinghelpeddeveloptheWesternbeliefofacosmos:anorderlyuniversewhereeverytensionandconflict will ultimately be resolved, just as after a period of inexplicable suffering Job was greatlyblessed.This belief in the Creator as a compassionate Savior became an underlying factor of the West’s

classicalmusicand its traditionof tensionandresolution.Upuntil theendof thenineteenthcentury,Westernmusicianssharedtheircivilization’sassumptionthattheuniversewascosmosratherthanchaos.Theycomposedconsonanceandconcordevenwhentheyexperienceddissonanceanddiscord.Thatisnotto suggest that classical music did not express the full range of human emotions. It did. A bereavedcomposerwouldwriteatragicpiece;someoneabandonedbyhislovewouldexpresshisdesolation.Butsuchoutpouringsofabrokenheartwereunderstoodassnapshotsofreallife.Giventheculturalpowerofthebiblicalworldview,noonethoughtofthemasKurtCobaindid,asevidenceofthebreakdownofcosmicorderorthenonexistenceoforderintheuniverse.In the novel The Silmarillion, J. R. R. Tolkien gives us a beautiful, fictional exposition of the

Augustinianperspectiveontherelationshipofmusic,creation,thefall(evil),andredemption.Tolkien’sMiddle-earth experienced much more suffering than the Buddha’s India. Tolkien’s “earth” was to becaptured,corrupted,andvirtuallycontrolledbyevil.Sufferingwasreal,brutal,andawful.YettheBibletaughtTolkienthattheAlmightyCreator,whowasalsoacompassionateRedeemer,waslovingenoughandpowerfulenoughtoredeemtheearthfromthegreatestpossiblemess,sin,andsuffering.ThishelpedTolkientocelebratecreation,bothinitsoriginaswellasinitsultimatedestiny:

TherewasEru,theOne,whoinArdaiscalledIluvatar;andhemadefirsttheAinur,theHolyOnes,thatweretheoffspringofhisthought,andtheywerewithhimbeforeaughtelsewasmade.Andhespoketothem,propoundingtothemthemesofmusic;andtheysangbeforehim,andhewasglad.Butforlongwhiletheysangonlyeachalone,orbutfewtogether,whiletheresthearkened;foreachcomprehendedonlypartofthemindofIluvatarfromwhichhecame,andintheunderstandingoftheirbrethrentheygrewbutslowly.Yeteverastheylistenedtheycametodeeperunderstanding,andincreasedinunisonandharmony….

ThenIluvatarsaidtothem:“OfthethemethatIhavedeclaredtoyou,IwillnowthatyemakeinharmonytogetheraGreatMusic.”

ThenthevoicesoftheAinur,likeuntoharpsandlutes,andpipesandtrumpets,andviolsandorgans,andlikeuntocountlesschoirs

singing with words, began to fashion the theme of a great music; and a sound arose of endless interchanging melodies woven inharmony thatpassedbeyondhearing into thedepthsand into theheights,and theplacesof thedwellingof Iluvatarwerefilled tooverflowing,andthemusicandtheechoofthemusicwentoutintotheVoid,anditwasnotvoid.17

PriortobecomingafollowerofChrist,AugustinehadbeenaprofessorofGreekphilosophy.Heknew

thatalthoughmusicwasencodedintothestructureofthephysicaluniverse,beingfinite,itcouldnever

provide ultimate meaning to life.* Therefore, he reasoned that to be meaningful, music had to beintegratedintotheultimateaimofhumanlife,whichwastoloveGodandone’sneighbors.Toloveone’sneighboristo“alwaysmind”hiswelfare.Overthecenturies,theinfluenceofAugustine’sbiblicalphilosophyofmusickeptgrowing.Originally,

churchmusicwasdominatedbymonophonicplainsong,asinglelineofmelodyasintheGregorianchant.Roman Catholic churches began to develop polyphonic music. This style, which combines severaldifferingvoicepartssimultaneously,begantoflourishatNotreDame(Paris)bytheeleventhcentury.ThatdevelopmentinChristianworshiplaidthefoundationfortheentirespectrumofWesternclassicalmusic,religiousandsecular.*In the tenth century AD, Augustine’s biblical philosophy of music inspired a group of Benedictine

monkstobuildtheworld’slargestpipeorganinthecathedralofWinchester,England.Theorganrequiredseventymenandtwenty-sixbellowstosupplywindtoitsfourhundredpipes.Technologically,thepipeorgan was the world’s most advanced machine until the invention of the mechanical clock. Europe’sorgansstoodasemblemsoftheWest’suniquedesireandabilitytousethearts,science,andtechnologyforthegloryofGodaswellasforthereliefofhumanity’ssufferingandtoil.**Augustine’sbiblicalphilosophyofmusicwasanimportant tributarythatcontributedtotheriverof

mechanical arts that began to flow out of Christian monasteries and churches. This tradition usedtechnologytoworshipGodandtoloveone’sneighbors.

TAKINGMUSICTOTHEMASSES

MartinLuther(AD1483–1546)tookthebiblical-AugustinianphilosophyofmusicoutofthecloisterandchoirlofttoEurope’smasses.AnAugustinianmonkandpioneeroftheProtestantReformation,Lutherwasandremainsapolarizingfigure.Somelovehim;othershatehim.YetmanycriticsagreethatLuthermayhavebeenthemostinfluentialfigureofthesecondmillennium.Lutherwasa“Protestant”becausehesawplentyinhisworldtoprotestagainst.Buthedidnotbecome

areformersimplybecauseheprotested.HechangedEuropebecausehefoundsomethingworthsingingabout,somethingworthlivingfor,andsomethingworthdyingfor.HefoundacovenantrelationshipwiththeAlmightyGod.*Arelationshiphecouldcountupon. Itwasa faith,aworldviewuponwhichhisdecadentworldcouldberebuilt.Yet,itwasfarmorethananideaorcreed.Itwasavibrantrelationshipwithsomeonewhowasworthdyingfor;aloveaffairworthyofsongs.LuthergotexcitedabouttheBiblepartlybecauseittaughtthathecouldnotanddidnotneedtodo

anything toqualifyforGod’s love.Salvation—forgivenessfromsinand therestorationofaperson’srelationshipwithGod—wasafreegiftofgracetobereceivedbytheemptyhandsoffaith.TheBiblegaveLutheradeep,Abraham-like,innerassuranceofGod’sacceptance.God’sfriendshipgavesuchavalueandmeaningtohislifethathehadsomethingtosingabout.Yes,inaworldthathadrebelledagainsttheCreator,therewassuffering.Yet,becauseGodislove,thereishopeforpardon,peace,progress,andprosperity.ThisgospelmadetheWestuniquelyoptimistic,enablingit tosing,“Joytotheworld”—amessageoppositetothatofCobain.Luther helped this biblical worldview to become the soul of Western civilization. His spiritual

followerssummeduphisdiscoveryoftheBible’sessenceinsongsofhope,assurance,andcertainty,suchas“AmazingGrace,”writtenbyreformedslavetraderJohnNewton(1725–1807):

Amazinggrace!HowsweetthesoundThatsavedawretchlikeme!Ioncewaslost,butnowamfound;Wasblind,butnowIsee.

Luther became a reformer because he realized that in order to conform to God’s Word, all God’schildrenwouldneedtohavethatWordintheirnativelanguages.HetranslatedtheBibleintohisownGermandialect.Histranslationwentintohundredsofeditionsandturnedhisdialectintothe“StandardGerman”forthewholeoftheGerman-speakingworld.TogetherwithLuther’sGermanhymnal,hisBibleforgedthesouloftheGerman-speakingnations.Luther’sworkinspiredotherreformers,suchasWilliamTyndale,whobegantranslatingtheBibleintoEnglish.ThatcrucialbeginningmadetheBiblethesoulalsooftheEnglish-speakingworld.*Following Jesus and the apostles, the early church sang worship together until Jerome the Great

encouraged priests to take over chanted worship in the fifth century. Since then until Luther’s time,congregations rarely sang during Christian worship—and then only in Latin, which they did notunderstand. By and large it was the priest’s job to worship and pray. Luther rediscovered the NewTestament doctrine of the priesthood of all believers,** which made it necessary for the entirecongregationtoworshipGodbysingingaswellasbyprayerandothermeans.“God,”hebelieved,“hascreated man for the express purpose of praising and extolling Him.”18 Because of his belief in thepriesthoodofallbelievers,Lutherwrotehymnsinthelanguageofhispeople—German—andbroughtmusictothelungsandlipsofeventhepoorestpeasantsinthecongregation.ForLutherthereformationoftheuniversitywassecondinimportanceonlytothereformationofthe

Church,andmusichadtohaveaprominentroleineducationaswell:

Ihavealwayslovedmusic;whosohasskillinthisart,isofagoodtemperament,fittedforallthings.Wemustteachmusicinschools;aschoolmasteroughttohaveskillinmusic,orIwouldnotregardhim;neithershouldweordainyoungmenaspreachers,unlesstheyhavebeenwellexercisedinmusic.19

Inputtingmusicattheheartofworshipandatthecoreofhiscurriculumofeducation,LuthersimplyfollowedtheJewish(biblical)traditionoftemplemusiciansandsingerswhowere“prophets”or“sonsofprophets.”Thebiblicalphrase“sonsofprophets”oftenmeantthestudentsofprophets.Anearlymeaningofthephrase“toprophesy”wasecstaticsingingaccompaniedwithmusic.20KingDavid—thedrivingforcebehindthetempleworshipinJerusalem—wasIsrael’smusician,singer,andpoetparexcellence.TheBiblecallshima“prophet.”21TheNewTestamentaskedthefollowersofChristtoseekthegiftofprophecy.22InthelightoftheOldTestament,thatexhortationhadtoincludelearningmusic,asdidthe“sonsofprophets.”ThemodernWestconfirmedLuther’seducationalphilosophy thatmusical literacyproducespeople

withanintuitiveawarenessofalogicalandorderlyuniverse.ItisnotacoincidencethatuniversitiessuchasOxfordandCambridgethathaveadistinctlyChristianheritagestillholdmusicingreaterrespectthanmostoftheuniversitiesfoundeduponsecularismduringthetwentiethcentury.

THEFLOWERINGOFWESTERNMUSIC

IttakesbarelyfiveminutestowalkfromtheBachhouseatEisenach,Germany,tothehousewhereLutherhadlivedasastudent,andittakeslessthantenminutestodriveupthehilltothecastleofWartburgwhereLuthertranslatedtheNewTestamentintoGerman.BythetimeJohannSebastianBach(1685–1750)wasborn,thatareahadbecomeaLutheranprovince.Philosophically,JohannesKeplerreinforcedthebiblical-Augustinian-Lutheranviewofcreationandmusicby teaching thatmusicmirrors thedivinelyordained mathematical harmony of the universe. Bach was a musical genius because he was amathematicalgeniuswhoreceivedasapartofhiseducationthis(non-polytheistic)biblicaloutlookofanorderly creation. In that mind-set, aesthetics was inseparable from ultimate harmony. One of his

biographers,WilfridMellerssaid,

At the school which Bach attended in Ohrdruf the system of education was little changed from the old [Augustinian-Lutheran]prescription.Musicwassecondinimportanceonlytotheology,andwastaughtbythesamemaster,whobelievedthatmusicmakestheheartreadyandreceptivetothedivineWordandtruth,justasElisius[Elisha]confessedthatbyharpinghefoundtheHolySpirit.23

ForBach,asforLuther,“truemusic”pursuesasits“ultimateendorfinalgoal…thehonorofGodandtherecreationofthesoul.”Bachbelievedthatmusicwasa“harmoniouseuphonyforthegloryofGod.”24Obviously, this isnotmeant tosuggest thatBach’smusical talentwasnurturedonlybytheological

beliefs.HisfamilywasakeyfactorindevelopingBach’stalent.Inchapter15wewillseethatitwasLuther’sexpositionoftheBiblethatmadehisfamilydifferentfromCobain’sfamily.Inhisformativeyears,Bachdrewheavilyonhisfamily’smusicalheritage,whichextendedbacktohis

great-great-grandfather. The Bach clan had developed into an expansive network of musicalapprenticeshipandencouragement.ThisnetworkprovedtobepivotalinBach’sdevelopment.BachandCobainsharedmoreincommonthantheirtalentformusic.Theybothlosttheirparentswhen

theywerenineyearsold,Cobain’sparentstodivorceandBach’stodeath.Atragiceventsuchashisparents’deathcouldhaveirreparablyupsetBach’semotionalbalance.Butbackthenthe“family”wasmorethanparentsandchildren.Johannmovedinwithhisolderbrother,whotaughthimtoplaytheorgananddevelophistalentsasacomposer.Followinghisbrother’sexample,Johannlatertutoredhisownchildrentobecomesomeofthebestmusiciansoftheirgeneration.Hisyoungestsonbecame,inhisownright,oneofthemostimportantinfluencesonMozart’swork.ItistemptingtointerprettheorderandharmonyofBach’smusicasametaphoricalreflectionofthe

orderofhisfamily.ThestabilityandsupportofhiswiderfamilygaveBachtheemotionalstrengthtoovercomehisheartaches.Thisstrengthisreflectednotonlyinhislifebutalsoinhiswork.*Yet, thefamilyalonecannotexplainhisabilitytocelebrate“ThePassion”(suffering)ofSt.JohnorSt.Matthew.Thisabilitytocelebratesufferingcamefromhisfaithintheresurrection—God’striumphoversufferinganddeath.Philosophicallyspeaking,Bach’sinnerpowertocopewithhisparents’deathcamefromhisbeliefina

sovereignandlovingGod.Hislifeandhiscompositionsweresaturatedwiththebookthathadgivenhimprofoundpersonalandsocialhope.25Lifetaughthimthatevilwasrealandpowerful,buttheBibletaughthimthatGodwasatworkredeemingtheworld,workingallthingstogetherforgood.26ThisbiblicalfaithhadbeenthekeytotheoptimismandmusicofWesterncivilization:forAugustineastheRomanEmpirewascollapsingaroundhim,forLutherashisownlifewasthreatenedbyapowerfulempireandacorruptreligiousleadership,andforTolkienashelivedthroughthehorroroftwoWorldWars.Thesepeopleknewevilandsuffering,asdidtheBuddhaandCobain,butthedifferencewasthatthe

Biblegavethemabasisforhopeinthislifeaswellasinthenext.ThisbiblicalfaithinaCreatorwhomadehumanbeingsinhisimageandlovedthemenoughtocometosavethem,madeitpossiblefortheWesttosing,“Ocome,allyefaithful/Joyfulandtriumphant.”Incontrast,Cobain’scareerdemonstratesthatwithoutthisfaiththeWest’shopeandcelebrationareturningintoasenseofabjectdespair.Ifwemayborrowthelanguageofmusicologists,theWestislosingits“tonality”—its“home/keynote,”itssoul,itscenter,thereferencepointthatallowedtherelaxation/resolveoftension.

THELOSSOF“TONALITY”INWESTERNMUSIC

Forcenturies,Westernmusicwastonal.Thatis,itshallmarkwasloyaltytoatonickey/homenote.Everysinglepiecegavepreferencetothisonenote(thetonic),makingitthetonalcentertowhichallothertoneswererelated.ThebreakupoftonalityinWesternmusicissaidtohavebegunwithAdolfHitler’shero,

Richard Wagner (1813–1883), who experimented with “atonality” in his opera Tristan and Isolde.Claude Debussy (1862–1918), Grand Master of the occult Rosicrucian lodges in France, took thatexperimentfurther.TheWest’sdescentintothechaosofatonalityacceleratedinthetwentiethcenturyinVienna,thecapitalofEurope’sculturaldecadence.*Eventuallytheatonalcomposershadtocreateaneworganizationintheirarttoreplacetonality—an

artificialtonalitycalledserialism.Bydismissingtonality—thecenter—theylostsomethingtheyhadn’tconsidered—form.Technically,Cobainretainedtonality,butinaphilosophicalsensethelossoftonalityinWesterncultureculminatedinCobain’smusic,theiconofAmerica’snihilismandanunfortunatevictimofacivilizationthatislosingitscenter,itssoul.Itmustbeaddedinhisdefensethatbykillinghimself,Cobaindemonstratedthathelivedbywhathebelieved.Hissinceritymakeshimalegitimateicon.Mostnihilistsdonotliveinthegripofwhattheybelievetobethecentraltruthaboutreality.Forexample,FrenchexistentialistsSartreandCamusadvocatedchoiceinspiteofthenihilismtheyembraced.InsodoingtheymadeawayoutofCobain’sproblem.Forthemsuicidewasnotnecessaryifonecouldcreatehisownrealitybychoices.Cobainremainspopularbecausewhilemanypeopleclaimtobenihilists,theydon’tfullyliveitout.

Hedid.Helivedwithoutcreatinghisownrealitythroughchoice(ortonalitythroughserialtechnique).Helivedinthenihilism,inthe“atonality,”andinthatnihilismhedied.InthatsenseCobainstandsasthedirectoppositeofthelife,thoughts,andworkofJ.S.Bach.Whereas

Bach’smusiccelebratedlife’smeaningasthesoul’seternalrestintheCreator’slove,CobainbecameasymbolofthelossofacenterandmeaninginthecontemporaryWest.WhileWesternmusichasgonethroughdozensofphaseswiththousandsofpermutationssincethetime

ofLutherandBach, insomewaysitwasonlyduringthe1980sthataphenomenonlikeKurtCobainbecame possible. The rejection of a good, caring, and almighty God and a rejection of the biblicalphilosophy of sin ensured that there was no way to make sense of suffering—personal, societal, orenvironmental.Realitybecamesenseless,hopeless,andpainful.

THEAMPUTATIONOFTHESOUL

Today, many people reject the Bible because they consider it to be irrational and irrelevant. Othersbelieveittoberesponsibleforracialprejudices,sectarianbigotries,slavery,theoppressionofwomen,the persecution of witches, opposition to science, the destruction of the environment, discriminationagainsthomosexuals,andreligiouswars.However,thiscriticismitselfrevealsthepowerfulinfluencetheBiblehadduringthelastmillennium.Duringthattime,hardlyanyintellectualpositionorsocialpracticecould become mainstream in Christendom unless it could be defended on biblical grounds, real ormistaken;norcouldbeliefsandpracticesbechallengedunlesstheiropponentsdemonstratedthattheircallforreformwasbiblical.CriticismsoftheBiblearerecognitionofitsuniqueculturalpower.IthasbeentheWest’sintellectual

andmoralcompass,the“sacredcanopy”(PeterBerger)thatgavelegitimacytoitsvaluesandinstitutions.TheWest’srejectionoftheBibleusheredinwhathistorianJacquesBarzuncalledits“decadence.”27ItbroughtanabruptendtotheModernage*justwhenWesterncivilizationseemedsettowintheworld.Now, having amputated the Bible, the Western educational machinery is producing “strays,” lost likeCobain.Itcanmakegoodrobotsbutitcannotevendefineagoodman.ThepostmodernuniversitycanteachonehowtotraveltoMarsbutnothowtoliveinone’shomeornation.28India-born British author George Orwell (1903–50) was a socialist, inclined toward atheism. The

horrorsofFascism,Nazism,Communism,andthetwoWorldWarsforcedhimtofacetheconsequencesofthe“amputationofthesoul.”Inhis“NotesontheWay,”OrwellwrotethatthewriterswhosawedofftheWest’s soul included “Gibbon, Voltaire, Rousseau, Shelley, Byron, Dickens, Stendahl, Samuel Butler,

Ibsen,Zola,Flaubert,Shaw,Joyce—inonewayoranothertheyareallofthemdestroyers,wreckers,saboteurs.”These“Enlightenment”writersledtheWestintoitspresentdarkness.InhisessayOrwellwasreflectingonMalcolmMuggeridge’sbookTheThirties,whichdescribesthe

damagethesewritershaddonetoEurope.Muggeridge,thenstillanatheist,wasastuteenoughtoperceivethat

wearelivinginanightmarepreciselybecausewehavetriedtosetupanearthlyparadise.Wehavebelievedin“progress.”Trustedtohumanleadership,rendereduntoCaesarthethingsthatareGod’s….ThereisnowisdomexceptinthefearofGod;butnoonefearsGod;thereforethereisnowisdom.Man’shistoryreducesitselftotheriseandfallofmaterialcivilizations,oneTowerofBabelafteranother…downwardsintoabysseswhicharehorribletocontemplate.29

IfirstdiscoveredtheBibleasastudentinIndia.IttransformedmeasanindividualandIsoonlearned

that,contrarytowhatmyuniversitytaught,theBiblewastheforcethathadcreatedmodernIndia.Letme,therefore,beginourstudyofthebookthatbuiltourworldbytellingyoumyownstory.*Seechapter6forafurtherdiscussionofhowviewinglanguageasmantraaffectsbroaderculturalstructures.**Theideathatmusicis“haraam”orisillegitimateisbasedonQur’an17.64,31.6,and53.59–62.Historically,Islamictheologiansworkinginthe tradition of Qur’anic interpretation developed by Ibn Masood, Ibn Abbas, and Jaabir after the death of Prophet Muhammad haveinterpretedthesepassagesascondemningallmusic.OthermoderninterpreterscontendthattheQur’andoesnotbanmusic.*Yogaattemptstocontrolbreathinginitsquesttorealizeself.Vipasanaobservesbreathingasameansofsilencingone’smindtoexperiencethatthereisnoselforsoulinsideusbutonlyNothingness,Emptiness,Void,ShoonytaorSelflessness.*SunnisandShiitesconsiderSufismaMuslimheresy.*Augustine’sintellectualmentor,Plato,believedthatepistemologicallynofiniteparticularcanmakesensewithoutaninfinitereferencepoint.*AugustinedidnothavemuchinfluenceovertheEasternChurchandthatmaybeonereasonwhyitsmusicdidnotdevelopmuchbeyondthechant.**Seechapter7foradiscussionofwhyWesterntechnologybecameameansofhumanemancipation.*LatersomeEnlightenmentthinkerssecularizedthebiblicalideaofdivinecovenantas“socialcontract.”Theidealiesattherootofmodernconstitutionalism.ItenabledtheWesttobecomeasocietybuiltuniquelyontrust.SeeRobertN.BellahTheBrokenCovenant:AmericanCivilReligioninTimeofTrial(NewYork:CrossroadBooks,1975).*Seechapter9,“Revolution:WhatMadeTranslatorsWorldChangers?”**Asweshallseeinchapter15,thisprofounddiscoverybasedon1Peter2:9,Revelation1:6,etc.,becameanimportantsourceoftheWest’seconomicdevelopmentandpoliticalliberty.*Chapter15willfocusontheWesternfamily,foritwasoneofthemostimportantsourcesoftheWest’sgreatnessandmonogamywasapeculiarproductoftheNewTestament.WithouttheBible,theWestcannotevendefinefamily,letalonedefenditstraditionalideaoffamilyagainstthestormsoflife.*Forexample,thesecondVienneseschoolofSchoenberg,WebernandBerg.*BythatImeantheperiodfromthesixteenththroughthemidtwentiethcenturywhentheBibleremainedthedominantculture-shapingforce,eventhoughskeptics,agnostics,andatheistskeptcondemningtheBible.

PartII

APERSONALPILGRIMAGE

Yourwordisalamptomyfeetandalighttomypath.—PSALM119:105NKJV

ChapterTwo

SERVICE

ORATICKETTOJAIL?

We tend to assume that our world is normative until we encounter a society that is fundamentallydifferent.MycultureshockcameinJanuary1976,whenmywifeandIlefturbanIndiatoliveinrural,centralIndia.WebeganourservicetothepoorfromourlittlehouseoutsideofthevillageGatheoraintheChhatarpurdistrict,theninfamousforgangsofarmedbandits,calleddacoits.*Theywentaroundlooting,kidnappingforransom,andkilling,whilefrequentlybuildingtemplesfortheirpatrondeities.Theterrain,terror,andprotectionofferedbyothermembersoftheircastemadeiteasyforthemtoevadearrest.Themostdreadedofthesedacoits,MuratSingh,hadledhisgangforthirtyyears.HissurrendertoaGandhianleader,1 justbeforewereachedChhatarpur,hadcatapultedourdistrictontothenationalnews.Butby1976,hisganghadregroupedaroundhisson,RamSingh.Now,in1978,ourneighborswarnedusthatRamSinghwasplanningtoattackus.Wenoticedsome

motorcyclistsdisplayinganunusualinterestinourfarm.Theywouldstopseveraltimesadaytotalktopeasantswhoworkedonfarmsnearours.Backthenitwasdeemeddangeroustoliveonafarm.Farmerslivedincompactvillages,hidingbehindmudwallswiththeirkinsmen.Thisprovidedsomesecuritybutentrenchedtheirpoverty.Afarmercouldnotgrowvegetablesandfruit,keepchickensandrabbits,orinstallanelectricpumpunlesshelivedoutonthefarmtoguardthem.Forthousandsofyearstheabsenceofeffectivelaw,order,andjusticehadexactedadebilitatingtoll

fromourpeople.Theyhadbeencoercedintothinkingthatitwasunwisetobewealthy.Wealth,atleastitsdisplay,wasaninvitationtotrouble.Ifafamilydidmanagetosavesomemoneyfora“rainyday,”theyneitherinvesteditincomfortablelivingnoringeneratingmoremoney.Instead,theydugtheircashandjewelryintotheirfloorsandwalls,buryingtheirwealth.Thistimidityandfearfulnessistypicalofinsecureculturesthatteachpeopletohoardtheirmeager

capital.Familiesdarenot“squander”itonculturalcreativityandpersonaladvancement.Ourneighborslivedinthesamedesignofmudhutsastheirancestorshadtwomillenniaearlier.Ourhistorywasfrozen.An absence of savings and investment had ensured that no one invented agricultural or domesticappliances.IndiastagnatedwhiletheWestadvanced.Dreaming,investing,andchangingthestatusquotakescourage;butthecouragetomeltaniceagedoesnotgrowinallculturalclimates.

CULTUREANDPOVERTY

Moribundculturesarefertilefieldsforfearful,fatalisticworldviews.Onlyastrologers,fortune-tellers,witch doctors, and sorcerers thrive on such glaciers. Our people’s fear warped their folk religion,medicine, witchcraft, child rearing, agriculture, business, travels, and personal habits. They put their“faith”infate,notinalivingGodwhoplannedforthemadestinyandenabledthemtofulfillit.Manyofthem were devoutly religious. Yet their fear of stars and spirits, rivers and mountains, karma andreincarnation,godsandgoddesses,madethemvulnerabletoexploitationandoppression.Theirfaithbred

terror,notadventure.*WhiletheHinduscripturescanbeinterpretedtosupportacaseforusingarmsforrighteousends,we

sawnoevidenceofareligiouslymotivateddefenseoftheweak.RamSingh,thenewdacoitleaderofhisfather’sgang,representedafeudaltraditionthatpreventedpeasantsmovingfromthevillagetoliveonafarm.* Promoting change in such a climate required more than World Bank–approved developmentprojects.Itrequiredinfusinganewoutlookinthepeoplewewantedtoserve.Butthenewfaithhadtobemodeled.Wefelt thatlivingonaspaciousfarmwouldmakeitpossibletoinstallbiogasdigesterstogenerateourowncookinggas.2Naturalgasforruralcookingwasunheard-ofin1976.Instead,forestswere being depleted by woodcutters and women who spent hours chopping trees. Every day theycollectedcowdungandmadecow-dungcakesforfuel.Oursistersburnedthisfertilizer,destroyingitscookinggasvalueandharmingtheirlungs.Electricity had come to our district just before we moved into the village. My brother Vinay had

installed an electric pump in our hand-dug well. Other farmers were reluctant to buy water pumpsbecausetheyfearedtheft.Electricitywasnotavailablefordomesticuseinvillages.Evenifithadbeen,noonehadheardofelectrickitchenappliances,norhadtheythemoneytobuythem.Norwouldanyhaveconsideredthemapriority.(“Whatwouldwomenpossiblydowiththetimesavedfromcollectingcowdungorhaulingwater?”)Ourneighborsfailedtocomprehendourdecisiontoliveonanunprotected,isolatedfarm.Whatwere

weupto?Howwouldweeverdefendourselvesfromtheinevitableattacksbyrobbers?Ourneighbors“knew” that the inquisitiveness of the armed motorcyclists was more than natural curiosity. Theywhispered:“TheybelongtoRamSingh’sgang.Heisplanningtoattackyou.”Livingonourfarmwewereveryvulnerable.Ruth,Nivedit (our infantdaughter),andPhupha(my

elderlyuncle)livedinourlittlehousewithclumsywoodendoorsthatcouldbepushedopen.WewereonlyeightkilometersawayfromtheoutskirtsofChhatarpur,yetittookthirtyminutestogetthereonourbicycles. (Bicycles were a recent luxury for a few upper-caste men; most people walked or rode abullock-cart.)Wedidnothavegunstofightagang.Ournearestneighborwasmorethanakilometeraway.Noonehadatelephone—andtherewasno911tocall!SoIprayed.AsIreadtheBible,IwasinspiredtoconfrontRamSinghface-to-face,justasMoses

confronted Pharaoh, who had been oppressing the Hebrews. Hearing the voice at the burning bushconvinced Moses that God wanted him to speak to Pharaoh, who was enslaving his people.3 MyintellectualquestthathadbegunattheuniversityhadbroughtmetobelievetheBible.MyjourneyintofaithtaughtmetotrustGod’spromiseintheBiblethathewouldbemy“shield”and“exceedinglygreatreward.”4RamSinghwasoperatingoutofasuite in theGuptaLodgenear theChhatarpurbusstand.Until I

steppedintohissuite,Ihadassumedthatgangsters’denswerefictionalinventionsoffilmdirectors.WhatIwalkedintowasnomovieset.Battle-hardenedarmedcriminalswithbigtwirled-upmustachesguardedthesmoke-filledroom,litteredwithliquorbottles.Adozenorsomenweredrinkingandcarousing.“Whoareyou?”growledoneofthebodyguardsblockingmyentry.“IamheretotalktoRamSingh,”Isaid,surprisedatmyresolutedeclaration.“Aboutwhat?”askedthesecond.Ididn’thavetoanswer.Afterrefillinganotherdrink,RamSinghintroducedhimselfwithastonishing

politeness.“IamRamSingh,”hesaid,addressingmewithfoldedhands(thetraditionalwaytogreetpeoplerespectfully).“WhatcanIdoforyou?”Irespondedabitroughlyincontrasttohisgraciousness:“IamVishalMangalwadi.I’mtoldthatyou

areplanningtoattackme.SoIhavecomeheretosaveyouthetroubleoffindingme.”Silencedescendedontheroom.RamSingh’spolitenessturnedintoembarrassment.Althoughbaffled

bymyaudacity,hetriedtoremainincommandofthesituation.HewastryingtofigureoutwhatIhadup

mysleeve—wasIadecoyforthepolice?NoticingthatIappearedtobeunarmed,hemotionedtohisbodyguardstoputdowntheirrifles.Thenheprotestedthattherumorswerebaseless,spreadtomalignhim:“HowcouldIdosuchanevilthing?It’sMR’sgangthatisactiveinyourarea.Theycommitthecrimesandblameme.Enoughisenough.I’mnotgoingtotakethisnonsenseanymore.”Fumingwithanger,heturnedtotwoofhisfollowersandabusivelyorderedthem:“GoatoncetoMR.

Tellhimtokeephishandsoffthesegoodpeople,orthistimehewillhavearealfightonhishands.”BeforeIcouldrecoverfrommyshock,hismenrumbledoffonamotorcycle,theirriflesslungacross

theirbacks.Ipolitelydeclinedhisofferofacigaretteandwhiskeyandbicycledbacktoourfarm.ThatencounterendedsowellthatwedidnotrealizethatRamSinghhadturnedMRagainstusboth.

MRwentontowinthenextelectionandbecomethemostpowerfulpoliticianinourarea.Two years later (1980), I was sitting in an easy chair on the spacious lawns of Chhatarpur’s

SuperintendentofPolice.HethreatenedtomurdermeifIdidnotcancelourforthcomingprayermeeting!Wasn’ttheSuperintendentofPolice(SP)paidtoprotectme?Hadn’thetakenanoathtodefendIndia’ssecular, liberal, democratic Constitution, which guaranteed my fundamental rights? Yet here he was,declaringwhatIonlydreamedofhearingfromadacoit!Thisconflictwithourdistrictauthoritiesgrewoutofourreliefwork.Aweekbeforemyconversation

withtheSP,IlayrecuperatingfromminorsurgeryintheMissionHospital,whereIhadbeenbornthirtyyearsbefore.Barleywasbeingharvestedandthewheatwasripening.Thenahailstormatharvesttimewroughthavoc.Itlastedbarelytwominutes,buthailatharvestiscatastrophicforimpoverishedfarmers.Beforeitsdindiedoutpeoplebeganwailingoutsidemyhospitalward.Noneofthemwerehurtbecausetheyhadtakenshelterinthehospitalverandahatthefirstdropsofrain.

FinallyIcoulddeciphertheirwailsandunderstandwhytheywerecrying.Somecursedtheraingodforflatteningtheircrops.Hailshatteredtheirhand-made,partiallybakedrooftiles.Moneyscrapedtogetherorborrowedfortheirdaughter’sdowrynowhadtogoforreroofinganddailybread.Theirunpaiddebtwouldskyrocketunderruinouscompoundinterest.*Iheardthepeasantscursetheirfate,theircapriciousstars,andtheircruelgodsofrainandhail.Iknelt

downbymybedandaskedGodtoshowusthathe,“theFatherofmerciesandGodofallcomfort,”5wastherulerofthisuniverse,andthatitwaswrongtoresignourselvestofate.God,asIlearnedfromtheBible,desiredallhischildrentobeonefamily,caringfor thoseoutsideclan,caste,orculture.Whyshouldn’tthefortunatesharewiththeunfortunatevictimsofthisnaturalcalamity?Couldn’tsuchtragediesbecome beautiful occasions of affirming our brotherhood—if indeed we descended from the sameoriginalparents?Early the next morning I received an unexpected visitor—Mr. Chatterjee from the EFICOR relief

agencyinNewDelhi.HehadreadmagazineexcerptsofmybookTheWorldofGurus.6Inhisrelief-and-development circles, people were discussing this “dedicated couple” who had left city life andopportunitiesintheWesttoservethepoorinaremote,backward,anddangerousvillage.SincehewaspassingthroughourregiontoseethetemplesofKhajuraho,**hedecidedtovisitourwork.Mr.Chatterjeedescribedhowthehailstormstruckmomentsafterhegotoffthebus.Hehadseenthe

peasants’reaction.Ihelpedhimbetterappreciatetheirplight.Heofferedsupportforourreliefeffortifwesubmittedaprojectproposaldetailingthedamage.Atabloidnewspaperturnedourreliefproposalintofront-pagenews.Butevenitfailedtoanticipatethe

sensationitcaused,itsstorystunnedthedistrict.Fivedayshadgonebyandeverybodyknewthestormhadflattenedcropsacrossmorethanahundredvillages.Neitherdistrictadministrators,norpowerfulpoliticians,norreligiousleadersevenmentionedrelief.Yetherewewere,afewyoungsocialworkers,livinginmudhousesina“God-forsaken”village*ontentofifteendollarsamonth—withtheaudacitytopromisehelptothosedisastervictims.Ihadnoideathatsimpledisasterreliefcouldthreatenacallousedandself-servingleadership.Iwas

astonished, therefore, to receive by special courier after-office-hours the District Magistrate’s (DM)orderbanningourreliefwork!Hisreason?Thenewspaperhadencouragedtheaffluentinourdistricttocontributetoourreliefeffort.Thatviolatedstatelawprohibitingprivatepartiesfromcollectingdisaster-reliefdonationswithoutgovernmentpermission!Ipromisedtorespectthelawandnotcollectdonations.Wewouldonlyofferrelief.TheDMinsisted

thatwescrapourproject.Why?Ifyouarenotcollecting,howcanyoupossiblygiveaid?Yourreliefprojectisunauthorizedandillegal!TheDistrictMagistratewasanofficeroftheIndianAdministrativeServices(IAS),**representingthe

verybestofIndiansociety.But,likemostofthesecular,socialistbureaucracy,moralcompromiseshadcorruptedhim.Hewasnowapuppetoftheverygangster-turned-electedpoliticianwhomRamSinghhadorderednottotouchus.Wedecidedtoobeythebiblicalinjunctiontohonorandobeycivilauthorities.7Irelayedmyresolvetoobeyhisorder,stopourreliefwork,andsimplyprayforrelief.TheBiblehadtaughtmethatGodcanworkthingsoutbetterthanIcan.Helpcamefromanunexpectedsource—theGandhiAshraminvitedustoholdanonsectarian,public

prayermeetingontheirpremises.Thathighlyrespectedinstitutionhadnegotiatedthedacoits’surrenderbeforewereachedChhatarpur.Ididnotrealizethattheirpublicservicehadalsoinfuriatedthedistrictauthorities.TheywereenviousbecausetheGandhiAshram’ssuccesshadexposedtheirfailuretoarrestthedacoits.TheGandhiAshram’sleadersfeltakindredspiritwithusandrespectedourwork.However,thisjoint

prayermeetingappearedtotheauthoritiesasapublicrebuff.Itlegitimizedourwork.ItamplifiedthepotentthreatIhadbecometotheestablishedleaders.Therefore,itprecipitatedtheDM’sthirdorder:Yourprayermeetingisbanned!Themagistratejudgedourprayerwasathreattolawandorder,“likelytodisturbthepeaceandtranquilityofthedistrict.”Wemettoconsiderthisorder.By1980ourfamilyhadgrowntoacommunityofaboutthirtypeople.8

Some community members were highly educated; others illiterate. Our community included idealisticyoungpeoplecometoserveothers,socialdropouts,anex-prostitute,andsomecriminalsseekinganewlife. Everyone agreed that obeying this order was to surrender our God-given freedom, protected byIndia’s Constitution. Our community studied the Bible daily, and the Bible forged a worldview thatclashedwiththeauthorities’worldview.WeknewourfreedomswerefromGod,notthegovernment’sgenerosity.GovernmentwasinstitutedbyGodtoguardourfreedom,nottodepriveusofit.Consequently,wecouldingoodconsciencedisobeythegovernment.Thestatewasnotabsolute.Itdidnothavethelastword.TherewasaWordabovehumanwords.However, our freedom or right to peaceful assembly was not the issue. Nor was it just relief for

disastervictims.Thequestionwefacedwas,howrealwasourcommitmenttothepoorandhowgenuinewasourfaithinGod?TheDMaskedfornoresponse,soIsentnone.Word-of-mouthpublicityfortheproposedprayermeetingcontinued,andIretreatedtoreflectandpraybeforedecidingonmycourseofaction.The people’s enthusiasm for the prayer meeting unnerved the local leadership. They ordered the

SuperintendentofPolicetointimidateme.Hecalledmetohishome,satmedown,andassuredmethathehadreadmybookreviewsandrespectedmeasapublicservant.Nevertheless,fortwohourshetriedtomakesureIunderstoodthatdisobeyinghimwouldcostmemylife.TheSPsensedthatIwasnottakinghimseriously.Ididn’ttakehiswordsatfacevaluebecauseInaivelytrustedIndia’sdemocracy,judiciary,andfreepress.Howcouldapoliceofficermurderaninnocentsocialworkerandgetawaywithit?Perhapstheauthoritieshadmisreadmymotivesincallingtheprayermeeting.Tomostwell-placed

Indians,publicdemonstrationsofpietyaresimplypoliticalgimmickspeopleusetoobscuretheirrealmotives.Butforme,prayerwasneitherapublicgimmicknoraprivaterelaxationexercise.IbelievedinprayerandexpectedGodtoanswerbecauseIbelievedGod’sinvitationintheBible,“Ask,anditwillbe

giventoyou”9and“Youdonothave,becauseyoudonotask.”10Backathomethatnight,Italkedandprayedwithmywifeandcommunity.Acolleagueremindedusthat

theBiblewarnsusnottounderestimatethespiritualblindnessofhumanrulers.Yetourconsensuswasthattocallofftheprayermeetingwouldbetobetrayourcommitmenttoserveourpeople.TheBibleauthorizedustodisobeyauthoritiesinordertoobeyGod.11Althoughwecouldn’tforeseethefuture,faithrequiredawillingnesstoaccepttheconsequencesofourchoices.12Faithheldthatpowerfulcriminalrulersandourpowerlesscommunitieswerenottheonlyplayers.IftherereallyisaHigherPower,thenwemustdoGod’swillandtrustinhim.Theadministrationmusthavehadspieswithinourcommunity.Atdawnthenextday,twotruckloadsof

armedriotpolicearrivedtoarrestme.Theofficerinchargewascourteous.Heletmeeatbreakfastwithmyfamilyandpraywithourcommunitybeforewhiskingmeoff to theBamithapolicestation. Iwasarraigned before the Sub-Divisional Magistrate (SDM) in the district headquarters, charged with“threatening”lawandorder.TheSDMsaidthathewouldreleasemeonbailifIpostedbondnottodisturbthedistrict’speaceandtranquillity.Signingthatbond,Idecided,wouldbeslavery.Itwasbettertobeimprisonedandretainmyfreedomtopray.Thatdecisionwasthetickettomyfirsttriptojail.Theofficialsfearedthatthevillagerswouldthrongtoseemeiftheylockedmeinthelocaljail.Sothey

incarceratedmeintheTikamgarhjail—athree-hourbusrideaway.TheauthoritiesweredoublyirritatedthatourprayermeetingwasscheduledforWednesday’smarketdaywhenthousandsofvillagerscametothecitytobuyandsell.Quashingourprayermeetingtookatremendouseffort.Theyturnedtheentirecityintoaveritablefortress.Everyentrypointintothecitywasbarricaded.Potentialpray-erswerewarnedtostayawayfromtheGandhiAshram.Police detained my key supporters for all of Wednesday. Yet, the authorities thought it a tactical

necessity toallowa fewwomen, includingmywife,Ruth, to reach thepremisesandprayunder theleadership of Dr. D. W. Mategaonker, the highly respected medical superintendent of the Christianhospital.AmedicalmissionaryfromMaharashtrastate,hewasknowntospendasmanyaseighteenhoursadayservingthesick.Heservedasthehonorarychairmanofourgoverningboard.Theauthoritiesmusthave felt that they would appear diabolically oppressive if they also arrested Dr. Mategaonker, thewomen,andtheGandhiAshram’sleadershipwhohadassembledtopray.Keepingmeinprisonsoonbecameanembarrassmentfortheofficials.Oncethenewspaperdiscovered

thatitsenthusiasmprecipitatedmyarrest,itdecidedtomakemylifeinjailfront-pagenews,dailycallingon the authorities to come to their senses. A week of such bombardment forced the authorities tounconditionallyreleaseme.OnmyreturnIundertookaPadyatra (footmarch)of thirtysomevillages,conductingprayermeetingsandexplainingwhathadhappened.Sittinginpeasants’homesandeatingtheirfoodhadaprofoundeffectonme:theirplightwasnolongerapoliticalissue.WhentheEFICORreliefcheckfinallyarrived,weignoredtheDM’searlierordersandofferedrelieftotheneedy.Havingburnedtheirfingersintheearlierconfrontation,thedistrictauthoritiesdecidednottoinfuriatethepeasants.Theylookedtheotherwayandbidedtheirtimeforamoreopportuneoccasion.*Myimprisonmentturnedintoablessing.ThejailorinTikamgarhhadnoneedtofearapettypolitician

fromanotherdistrict.Sincethelocalpresspublicizedmystory,hegrantedmethestatusofa“politicalprisoner.” Ihadaspaciousandairyhallall tomyself, togetherwithgoodfood.The jailbecameanexcellentretreat—atimetoexercise,pray,andreflectonwhatnationbuildingmeantinthelightofmyexperienceofreal(notideal)India.Irevisitedmypreviousquestions:HowdidmodernIndiagetherfreepress,independentjudiciary,andprisonsregulatedbytheruleof

law?Whatisajustandafreesociety,andhowdowebuildone?Whyaremypeoplesopoor,andhowdidothernationsbecomesomuchmoreprosperous?Howdidtheyfreetheirnationalinstitutionsfromunscrupulous,corrupt,andpower-hungrypeople?

Isitenoughtogiverelieftothedestituteandrundevelopmentprojects,orshouldwefindwaystobuildabetterIndia—anationwhere institutionsarerunin the interestof thepeople,rather thanrulers;whererulersareshepherds,notwolves?Someofmyfellowprisonerstoldhorrorstoriesofbeingthrowninjailontrumped-upchargesofrape

andmurderforoffendingsomepoliticianorpoliceofficer.IwonderediftheSuperintendentofPolice,whoheldthelawandmyconstitutionalrightsincontempt,wouldcarryouthisthreattokillme.Wasitwisetostandonprinciplesandsuffer?HowdoIknowthatthesebiblicalprinciplesaretrue?Ifmybeliefsarenottruebutonlymypersonalpreferences,isitprudenttoriskmylifeforthem?Arethosefriendswrongwhoprefertojointhecorruptratherthanresistevil?DuringthatimprisonmentIbeganwritingTruthandSocialReform,whicheventuallybecameTruth

andTransformation.*Adacoitisamemberofaclassofcriminalswhoengageinorganizedrobberyandmurder.*LaterwewillseehowtheBibledeliveredtheWestfromfatalismandhowtheWesthashelpedthenon-Westernworldovercomesomeoftheimpoverishingeffectsoftraditionalworldviews.IndiaandChina’snewprosperityhaspromptedsomeanthropologiststowonderiffatalismnecessarilyresultsinpoverty.*InthosepartsofIndiawhereChristianityhashadgreaterinfluence,e.g.,Kerala,peoplehaveforageslivedonfarmsandmademuchbetteruseofavailableland.*ThoughIndia’seconomyisgrowingrapidly,thatdoesnottranslateintoreliefforpeasants.Indebtednessdrivesfarmerstoselltheirkidneys.Debtdrovesome25,000farmerstosuicidefrom1997to2004.**These1,000-year-oldtempleswithexpliciteroticsculpturewereourdistrict’sonlyclaimtofame.*In1979wehadmovedtoanewfarm,outsideofVillageKadari.**Untilthe1980s,theIndianAdministrativeServices(IAS)drewIndia’sbesttalent—thebestreared,educated,andconnected.* Our community buildings and vehicles were burned down in 1984 during the government-sponsored anti-Sikh riots that followed theassassinationofourprimeminister,Mrs.IndiraGandhi.

ChapterThree

QUEST

CANBLINDMENKNOWTHEELEPHANT?

Myspiritualpilgrimagebeganinamoralstruggle.AtayoungageIhadstartedstealingandlying.Oneofmyearliestmemoriesisofstealingwaterchestnuts.Iwasjustoversixyearsold.ThechestnutsweremeantforthefamilyafterlunchbutIfinishedthemoffbeforelunch.WhenconfrontedIsaidthattheonesIateweregiventomebyafriendwhogotthemfromapond.Whydidn’tmyimaginationamusemyfather?Hecouldhavesaid,“YourfertileimaginationmightdowellinHollywood.”Buthewasratherold-

fashioned.Hebelievedthatwhileimaginationwasgood,integritywasmoreimportant.SohedemandedthatIconfessthetruth.IinsistedthatIwastellingthetruth.Buthewasnotinterestedinmytruth!HewantedtheTruth.Exasperatedbymyinsistencethatheoughttorespectmybelief,heaskedmetotakehimtomyfriend.Afterwehadlookedforwhatseemedlike“ages,”Isuggestedthatmyfriendmighthavegoneoutofthe

citytovisitsomerelative.Myfatherthenaskedmetotakehimtothepondfromwherewegotthechestnuts.Imadehimwalk

“forever,”hopingthathewouldgiveup.Hekeptwalking,hopingthatIwouldconfessandrepent.Hisanger,frustration,discipline,patience,andloveservednopurpose.Stealingandlyingbecamehabits.ThetrivialvalueofgoodsIstoleortherelativeinsignificanceofliesItolddidnotconcernme.What

botheredmewasmymanifestlackofwillpowertocontrolmywordsandactions.OfteninthemorningIwoulddecide,“TodayIamgoingtouseallmywillpowertocontrolmyself.”Butintheevening,whenIlookedbackovermyday,IwouldbeashamedthatIhadrelapsedintotheverybehaviorIloathedandthatmyeffortsatself-reformhadfailed.Ibelievedmyactionswerewrong.Why,then,didIdowhatIknewwaswrong?InthemidstofthisinnerstruggleIheardthenewsthat

JesusChristcametosavesinners.Thatwas“goodnews”tome,as itwouldbe toanyalcoholicoradultererwhoknewhewaswreckinghislifeandhisfamily.Ididneedsomeonetosaveme,soIaskedJesustobecomemySavior.Hechangedme.IwasthenabletogototheshopsfromwhereIhadstolen,offerrestitution,andaskforforgiveness.Jesusbecamethemostpreciouspersoninmylife.

TOTHINKORNOTTOTHINK

WhenIreacheduniversityinmylateteens,Iencounteredanumberofchallengestomyfaith.Mystudiesinphilosophy,politicalscience,andEnglishliteraturemadeitdifficulttobelievetheBible—thelensthroughwhichIhadviewedmyexperienceasayouth.Oneeventthatcausedmetoquestionmybeliefwasauniversitydebate:“ThisHouseBelieves.”*“Believes”what?“What”wasnottheissue.Thequestionwaswhetherwe“know”truthor“believe”it.Wasthehuman

mind(logic+informationobtainedthroughthesenses)capableofknowingtruth,ordidwealsoneedsomethingelse—faith,intuition,ormysticalexperience?Didweneedrevelationfromextraterrestrials,spirits,orGod?Onespeakeridentifiedhimselfasarationalistandatheist.Hewassoeloquentweweresurehewould

receivethefirstprize.Thenextspeakerwasdull,buthechallengedtherationaliststoprovethatGoddoesnotexist,sincetheyclaimtobelieveonlywhattheycanprove.Iftheycouldn’tproveit,thentheymerelybelievedtheassertionthatGoddoesn’texist.True,DavidHumehaddemonstratedthatlogiccannotprovethatGodexists—butcanitprovethat

Goddoesnotexist?Ifnot,howthencouldarationalistbeanatheist?Therationalistmerelybelievesinlogic.Hecan’tprovethattheuniverseisboundbylogic.Whatisourlogic?IsitanythingmorethanaproductofWesternculture?WesternphilosophyproducedrationalismonlybecausetheWestbelievedthatlogos(divinelogic)wasthepowerthatcreatedandgovernedtheuniverse.Thatbeliefhasneverbeenproven.TheWestbelievesinreasononlybyassumingthatthehumanmindismadeintheimageofarationalGod.WhatifthereisnoGod?Whatifrationalityisnotapropertyofdivinity?WhatifIndianphilosophersarerightinbelievingthattruthcanonlybeexperiencedbykillinglogicalthoughtthroughmeditation.Noneofthesubsequentspeakersansweredhischallengesatisfactorily.Whenthemotionwasputtothe

vote,theassemblyheld“ThisHouseBelieves”—thattheuniversitydoesnotknowwhatistrue!*Informaldiscussionslaterrevealedthatnotasingleprofessorbelievedthatreasoncouldleadhuman

beingstotruth.Ouruniversity’sexistentialistsfavoreda“blindleapoffaith.”Thechiefguest,headoftheEnglishdepartment,suggestedthatmeditation,notrationalquest,mightgiveusamystical(nonrational)experienceoftruth.Hishopeinanintuitive,nonrational,mystical,“rightbrain”experiencewasgaininggroundworldwide,asIlaterdiscovered.ItwasreplacingtheWest’sconfidenceintheabilityofhumanreasontoknowtruth.Noprofessortookthetroubletoattackmyteenagefaith.Iwasdriventodoubtbyprofessorsappearing

moreknowledgeable thanreligious leadersIknew.If learnedmenwerenotsureof truth,howcouldshepherds,fishermen,andtentmakerswhowrotetheBiblebesocertain?DoubtingtheBiblewasnotdifficult;theharderquestionwas,whatdoyoubelieve?Idecidedtobelievewhatthebestphilosophersandscientistsknewtobetrue.So,Ibeganreviewing

mycourseinphilosophy.Beforelong

Iknewthatmyprofessorsknewthatthephilosophersknewthattheydidnotknowandthattheycouldnotknowtruth.*

No learned person maintained any hope that human logic could discover truth, without divinerevelation.Thehumanisthopethatmancandiscovertruthbyhisreasonalonereceivedphilosophicalsupport from René Descartes in the mid-1600s. By 1967, when I entered the university world, thisconfidence in human reason had turned into complete (epistemological) pessimism of the intellectualelite.Thisdoubtoverthehumanabilitytoknowtruthwasdisconcerting.**JustasIbecameawareoftheprofoundintellectualdespairofthepostmodernintellectuals,manwaswithinafewmonthsoflandingonthemoon.Whata triumphof thehumanmind!Torealizeon thismomentousmoment thatourAgeofReason ended in depressing failure*** was completely confusing. It took four hundred years forModern****philosophytolearnwhattheancientGreekandHindumysticscouldhavetoldthemtobeginwith:thathumanreasonalonecannotknowtruth.

TheBuddha(563–483BC)couldhavesavedModernphilosophersalotoftrouble.Ifoundthatforcenturiestheyhadgonearoundincircleslikeblindmeninadarkroomtryingtofindthedoor—thatwasn’ttheretobeginwith.Theyneedlesslymadefoolsofeachotherandultimatelyoftheirentireclan.Yearsofthinking,studying,andseekingtruthbroughttheBuddhatorealizethatthehumanmindcouldnotdiscoverultimatetruth.Thus,theBuddhadescribedthehumanintellectasthesourceofignorance.*Histeachingwasknowntopre-ChristianGreece,yetWesternphilosophersonlyrediscovereditattheendofourModernera.Manynowknowthe“truth”thatthehumanintellectisincapableofknowingtruthorputtingitinwords.

FIVEBLINDMENANDANELEPHANT

AccordingtoaBuddhistparable,fiveblindmentriedtounderstandanelephant.Feelingitsfeet,onepontificated,“Theelephantislikeapillar.”

Leaningagainsttheelephant’sside,thesecondscoffed,“That’sstupid!Theelephantislikeawall.”“Notatall,”disputedthethird.“Theelephantislikearope!”heexclaimed,graspingitstail.Thefourth,furious,declared:“Noneofyouknowthetruth!Theelephantislikeawinnowingfan.”He

cooledhimselfwithitsear.Thefifth thought thefirst fourwerecrazy.“Theelephant is likeasharp,polishedstone,”hesaid,

strokingtheelephant’stusk.Ourfinitemindsare like thoseblindmen.Duringourshort lives,wecanexperienceonlyasmall

fractionofreality.Canweclaimanythingtobetruebeyondourlimitedexperience?Couldthosefiveblindmenknowrealtruth,evenbypoolingtheirinformation?Oristheonlywaytoknowtruththroughnonrationalmysticalexperience,asmyprofessorswerebeginningtobelieve?Whatiftherewasasixthmanwhocouldsee?Hecouldsaytothefirstblindman,“Sir,youareholding

theelephant’sfoot,butifyougetupandmoveupfourfeet,youwillfeelthewallpart,whichistheelephant’sside.”Thatwouldberevelation.OthersrevealedtomemostofwhatIknew.Icouldn’tprovethattheearth

rotatedonitsaxisandrevolvedaroundthesun.Ibelieveditbecausemyelderssaidthattheexpertssaidso.Thatbeliefhelpedmeunderstandsunsetsandsunrisesandwhysummerchangedtowinter.Ablindmancouldtest(verifyorfalsify)manyofthesixthperson’sclaims.Butwhenheistoldthatthe

tuskiswhite,hemustacceptthatonfaith.Beingbornblind,hecouldnotcomprehendwhiteness,letaloneverifyit.Wouldthisfaithbe“blind”?Notifhetestedthesixthman’sotherclaimsabouttheelephantandfoundhimtobetrustworthy.Bigotryistopresumethateveryoneisblind;thatnooneknowsorcanknoworcommunicatethetruth,neitheranET(extraterrestrialintelligentcreature)noraCreator.

WOULDEYESEXIST,IFLIGHTDIDNOT?

Myprofessorstalkedasthoughwhiletheycouldspeak,theirCreatorcouldneverspeak.Theyheldthatwhiletheywrotebooks,theirCreatorcouldneverpresenthispointofview.Thatseemedpresumptuous.Whatiftheywrotebooksbecausetheyweremadeintheimageofsomeonewhooriginatedthoughtandcommunication?Some friends maintained that the Bible could not be God’s book because it was the product of a

particular human culture. Each of the Bible’s books bears the imprint of its human authors. Paul’slanguage,vocabulary,andargumentaredifferentfromJohn’s.ThisargumentseemedconvincinguntilIpausedtolookatalotusflowerinourgarden.Itwasgorgeous.Itclearlydependedonchemistryandclimate. Itwas chemistry. It was also vulnerable to insects and humans. But could it also be God’s

handiwork?Eachofuswrotewhatourprofessorsrevealed.Mynotesweredifferentfrommyfriend’snotes,justaseachlotuswasdifferentfromtheothers.YetwhatmyfriendsandIwrotewerewordsandthoughtsfromthesameprofessor.Whycouldn’twordsbearingsignaturesofseveralauthorsbethewordsofoneGod?Though blind men exist, couldn’t someone exist who sees? Someone who sees the elephant and

communicateswiththeblind?“Blindness”existsonlybecausesightexists.Ifnoonecouldsee,noonewouldtalkofblindness.EarlyEnlightenmentphilosopherslikeDescartesmadeasimplemistake.*Theypresumedthatbecause

wehaveeyes,wecanseeforourselveswithoutnonhumanaid.Oureyesareindeedaswonderfulasourintellect.Buttosee,eyesneedlight.Whywouldeyesevenexistiflightdidnot?Ifintellectcannotknowtruth,perhapsitneedsthelightofrevelation.Infact,intellectcanknownothingwithoutrevelation.**Itseemedtomethattheintellect’sexistencerequiredpriorexistenceofrevelationandcommunication.Toaprioriruleoutrevelationwasputtingconfidenceineyeswhileexcludinglight.Ontheotherhand,cynicismseemedindefensible.Humanknowledgeobviouslyhadsomevalidity.Inan

agewhensomesoughtcommunicationfromextraterrestrials,rulingoutrevelationfromGodappearedtobearrogantbigotry.Idecidedtoreadtheworld’sbest-knownscripturestoseeiftheCreatorhadgivenrevelation.MyprofessorofIndianphilosophytookpainstocultivateinourclassadeeprespectfortheHindu

scriptures.Yet,heneveraskedustoreadtheVedas—theprimaryandholiestHindutexts.SoIdecidedtostudythem.IwenttothebookstalloftheGitaPress,Gorakhpur—theBibleSociety’sHinducounterpart.TomyastonishmentIwastoldthatIcouldbuyVediccommentaries,buttheVedasthemselveshadneverbeenpublishedinHindi,mymothertongueandIndia’snationallanguage!“Why?”Iaskedthebookseller.“Don’tpriestswantustoknowGod’srevelation?”ThebooksellergentlyexplainedthattheVedascouldneverbetranslatedbecausetheyweretoosacred

anddifficulttounderstand.Besides,understandingwasnotnecessary.Theywereneverwrittentoteachtruth.Theyweremantrastobememorizedandcorrectlychantedwithcarefulpronunciation,enunciation,and intonation. Their magic was in the sound, not in the meaning. To learn the Vedas, I must find acompetent guru and spend years at his feet practicing the art of Vedic chanting, while performingprescribedsacrifices.Disappointed,IqueriedtheQur’an.Allahabad,mycity’sname,means“theabodeofAllah.”Iagain

wasamazedtolearntheQur’anwaspublishedneitherinHindinorinUrdu—alanguageIunderstoodbecause my Muslim friends used it all the time. Since my passion was to know truth, I had littlemotivationtolearnArabicatthattimetostudytheQur’an.SoIreturnedtotheBible,whichIhadalreadyread,toseeifitactuallywasGod’srevelation.Iwasfortunatethatmyparents,myeldestsister,andseveralfriendsencouragedmetoreadtheBible.

YetdecidingtoexaminetheBiblerequiredcourage.Ihadtogoagainstmyuniversity’senvironment.IfoundsomepartsoftheBibletobeexciting,othersboring,someevenrepulsive.ButIdiscoveredfar

morethanIanticipated.*Thisdebatehappened.However,itscontentaspresentedhereis“literary,”not“literal,”truth.Ihavecondensedintooneincidentideasthatdevelopedovermanymonths.Myuseofthisliterarydeviceinotherplacesshouldbeobvious.*Inchapter5wewilldiscussifcommonsenseisanythingmorethanaculturalbelief.* Inchapter6 IdiscusshowWesterncivilizationfirstbecamea thinkingcivilizationandwhy it is turning toNewAgesuperstitionsandmysticism,despisinglogic(leftbrain),andexaltingfeelingsorintuition(rightbrain).**Thatimpliedknowingthetruththatitwasknownthattruthisunknown.***Seechapter6onrationality.****Throughoutthisdiscourse,thewordModern,spelledwithcapital“M,”referstotheModernera(1517–1960s)ofintellectualandculturalhistory,asopposedeithertopremodernorpostmodern.*ItisnotalwayseasytodiscernwhattheBuddhahimselftaughtversuswhatwasaddedbyhisfollowers.ItislikelythattheBuddhadidbelievethat“Ignorance”(Avidhya)wastherootofcreation.ForadiscussionofPaticcasamuppadaorthe“ChainofDependentOrigination,”seechapter6onrationality.Assumingthatcreation,includingofthehumanbody,self-consciousness,andrationality,wasaproductofcosmic

“Ignorance,”theBuddhasoughtmysticalenlightenmentbysidesteppingrationality,eliminatingself-consciousness,andescapingthebodyandtheworld.*InmanywaysDescartesfollowedAugustine.However,hisoverconfidenceinreasoncamefromRenaissancewriterssuchasPicodellaMirandola.Augustineescapedthetrapofthehumanisthubrisandbalancedhisbeliefinintellectwithabeliefinreasonablefaithbecauseskepticismwasapartofhisintellectualenvironment.**Includingwhattheologianscall“GeneralRevelation,”or“commongrace.”

ChapterFour

SELF

AMILIKEDOGORGOD?

UniversitymadeiteasytodoubtGod.MychallengewastodiscoverwhoIwas.IntroductiontoPsychologywasarequiredcourseforthoseofusstudyingphilosophyatAllahabad

University. The department of psychology was the pride of our university. In the late 1960s, thedepartment was dominated by behaviorism, the school of psychology championed by B. F. Skinner.BehaviorismpresupposesthatthereisneitherGodnorsoul.Consequently,humanbeingsarechemicals-turned-animals,qualitativelynodifferentfromdogs.Chemistryhasnosoulor“freewill.”*Itfunctionsasa closed, deterministic system of causes and effects. Behaviorists used Pavlov’s dog experiments toexplainhowhumanbeingsareconditionedandcouldbereconditioned.Theyreducedhumanbeingstopsychochemical machines determined by environment, chemistry, chance, and cultural conditioning.Machinescanbedamaged,repaired,andreprogrammed,buttheyarestilljustmachines.AsIstartedrereadingtheBible’sfirstchapter,Ifoundaradicallydifferentviewofthehumanself.It

saysthatGodcreatedhumanbeingsinhisimage(“man”—bothmaleandfemale).OnonehandbothdogsandIarecreatures.Wearesimilarinmanyways.Forexample,wearebothmammals.Yet,infundamentalwaysweareverydifferent.Icannotknowtheessenceofmyhumannessbystudyingdogs.IfIammadeinGod’simage,wouldnotknowingGodbeessentialtoknowingmyself?WhatdoesthisfirstchapterofGenesistellmeaboutGodandmyself?TheBibleopensbydeclaring:“Inthebeginning,Godcreatedtheheavensandtheearth.”Godisthe

Creator.Adogisonlyacreature.WhatamI?IfGenesisisright,thenIambothacreature(madebyGod)andacreator(madeintheimageoftheCreator).Iamacreativecreature.Thatwasanepiphanyforme.ThosefewshortsentencesfromGenesismatchedmyexperiencebetter

thanthevoluminouswordsfromthedepartmentofpsychology.Thebiblicalwordsmadesensebecausethey were true to what I knew about myself. Machines produce. Human beings create. What’s thedifference? We create what we choose to create. Freedom, or choice, is the essence of creativity.Determinismexplainsonlyapartofme.IeatfoodwhenIamdrivenbythechemistryofhungerpangs.ButIcanchoosetofast.Icanchoosetofastuntodeathorchoosetobreakmyfast.Atthecoreofmybeing,Iamfree.Ironically,thatlightoftruthdawnedonmeonareallydarknight.Ireturnedhometofindthattherestof

myfamilyhadgoneout.ClimbingupthestairswithourdogJackieleadingtheway,Igropedforthelightswitchandturnediton.Buttherewasnopower.Ifoundourhiddenkey,openedthedoor,andfeltmywaytothetablewherewekeptmatchesandcandles,onlytofindnomatchsticksinthematchbox.Myenvironment“determined”mychoice.Isatonthecouch,calledJackietositbyme,andallowedmy

mindtowander:Whatifmyfamilydoesn’tcomebackforhours?Whatifthebatteriesaredeadintheflashlightthat

mymothercarriesatnight?Well,Iguessnohomeworkformetonight.I’lljustgotosleep.Butwhatifthereisnopowertomorrowandwestilldon’thavematches?Whatifmatcheshadnever

beeninvented?Well,then,maybeI’dpickuptwostonesandrubthemtogethertogetasparkgoing.Thenwe’dhavelight.Butwhydoweneedlight?Whydoesn’tJackiecarewhetheritislightordark?AmIdifferentfromdogs?CoulditbethatImakelight—thoughJackiedoesn’t—becauseIammade

intheimageofsomeonewhocreatedlight?Thatlastthoughtwasinteresting.Jackieacceptswhatis—evendarkness.Iimaginewhatcouldbeor

ought tobeandtrytochangewhatis.That’screativity.Iampartofnature,butIamnotmerelyandexclusively a part of nature. By using my imagination, I can transcend nature. I can change nature tobecomelikemyimagination.Icaninventmatches,candles,andelectricbulbs.Is thatwhat theBibleimplieswhenitcallsGod“Creator”andsaysthatIammadeinhisimage?ThecreationaccountinGenesis1:2–4continues:“Theearthwaswithoutformandvoid,anddarkness

wasoverthefaceofthedeep…AndGodsaid,‘Lettherebelight,’andtherewaslight.AndGodsawthatthelightwasgood.”Anotherlightturnedoninsideofme.Perhapsthiscreativeelementinthenatureofahumanwasthe

reasonJesussaid:“Iamthelightoftheworld.Whoeverfollowsmewillnotwalkindarkness.”1Jesus’contemporarieshadlamps,yettheywalkedindarkness—moral,religious,social,economic,andpoliticaldarkness.Jesuscalledhisdisciplestobethelightintheirdarkworld.Howcanwechangeourworldifwearemerelyapartofit?Wecaninventalloysthatarenotfoundinnatureandbreedflowersandfruitsthatdon’tgrowinnature.Thisshowsthatthereissomethinginus—creativeimagination—thattranscendsnature,culture,andhistory.Wemustbefreeinsidetomakeadifferenceoutside—innatureorinculture.Determinism(andotherformsofreductionism)impliesthatwedon’texistasindividualselvesbutare

onlyproductsofourchemistry,genes,environment,culture,orlanguage.Myprofessorscouchedtheseideasinscientific/academicterminology.Didthatmaketheseideasanybetterthantraditionalfatalism?FatalismisaworldviewwithhugesocialconsequencesthatIcouldseeallaroundme:poverty,disease,and oppression. Cultures like mine had historically resigned themselves to their “fate.” Westerncivilization,ontheotherhand,believedthathumanbeingswerecreativecreaturesandthereforecouldchange“reality”for thebetter.Thisenabled theWest tovirtuallyeliminatemanyof the ills thatstillplaguedmypeople.But,Isaidtomyself,ifyouwerelikeGod,wouldyouwaitforyourfamilytoreturn?Wouldn’tyou

justsay,“Lettherebelight,”andtherewouldbelight?Waitaminute!(Iwasexercisingmyinnerfreedomtoarguewithmyself.)Howdowemakeelectricity?Don’twereadandteachthescienceandtechnologyofgeneratingandapplyingelectricitybeforewe

canmakelight?Wordsdocomebeforelight.Dogsdon’tlearntomakelightbecausetheydon’thavethegiftoflanguage.Iuselanguage,butJackiedoesn’t.Didweevolveourcapacitytouselanguage,orwerewemadewiththatcapacitybecausewewerecreatedintheimageofsomeonewhouseswords?Languagedoesnotmerelyenableustobecreative.Languageisitselfcreative.Thebestliteratureis

“inspired”language.Inspirationisalsokeytoscientificdiscoveries,technicalbreakthroughs,andliterarymasterpieces.Inspirationcomesfrom“enspiritus”—intheSpirit.Inthedarkstillnessofthatroom,IlearnedwhatHelenKeller(1880–1964)hadlearnedinafarmoredramaticexperience:thatlanguagemakesushumans—persons.Helenwasblindanddeaf.Becauseherconditionhaddevelopedwhenshewasonlynineteenmonths

old,shealsobecamedumb—unabletouseoralsignifiers(words)forcommunication.Foryears,Helencouldn’tlearnanythingbecauseshewaslockedupwithinherownworldoffrustrationandanger.InTheStoryofMyLife(1902),Helendescribedhermomentofepiphanyatageseven:

Wewalkeddownthepathtothewellhouse,attractedbythefragranceofthehoneysucklewithwhichitwascovered.Someonewasdrawingwaterandmyteacherplacedmyhandunderthespout.Asthecoolstreamgushedoveronehand,shespelledintotheotherthewordwater,firstslowly,thenrapidly.Istoodstill,mywholeattentionfixeduponthemotionsofherfingers.SuddenlyIfeltamistyconsciousnessasifsomethingforgotten—athrillofreturningthought;andsomehowthemysteryoflanguagewasrevealedtome.I

knewthenthat“w-a-t-e-r”meantthewonderfulcoolsomethingthatwasflowingovermyhand.Thatlivingwordawakenedmysoul,gaveitlight,hope,joy,setitfree!2

Herdiscoveryof languageenabledHelen to learn tospeakbyage ten.She learned towriteusingaBrailletypewriter.Shebecameaprolificauthor,achampionfortheblind,andapowerfulvoiceonmanysocialissues.Helen’sexcitementaboutlanguagewasoppositeofthatofIndianmystics.ThemostenlightenedIndian

mystics cultivated silence. They saw intellect and language as the source of human ignorance andbondage.Amongmyfriends,TripathiwastheonlyHinduwhohadthecouragetoagreewiththeIndiansages.Hethoughttheprofessorswhotaughtthatmanwasnothingmorethananevolvedanimalwereillinformed.Man,Tripathimaintained,wasGod—theultimatereality,pure,thoughtlessconsciousness.Itpermeateseverything.Itiseverything.Itiswithinus,andwereachitbymeditatingawayallthoughtsandwordsfromourminds.Humanbeings,Tripathibelieved,neededtoreachastateofconsciousnesswherealldualities,allopposites,mergetobecomeone.EinsteinpreventedmefromfollowingmypsychologyprofessorsontheonehandandTripathionthe

other.India’swarwithChinahadraisedthequestionwhetherIndiashouldgonuclear.Wewereproudoftheworld’sreverenceforourGandhianrejectionofwar,violence,andindustrialization.Welovedourimageofbeinganonviolentnation,butwouldChinaexploitourlackofnuclearpower?In a sense, the nuclear age began with Einstein’s equation E = mc2. Einstein did not arrive at his

equationbysplittinganatomandmeasuringtheenergyitreleased.Hereachedthisconclusionthroughhisrationalimaginationandmathematicalreasoning.Howcanalumpofclay(turnedfat)—thehumanmind—knowtheinvisiblelawsthatgovernthisuniverseandcapturethoselawsinwords,wordsthatcanbetestedanddeterminedtobetrueorfalse?India’snonrational,nonverbalmysticismproducedmantrasandmagic.Todevelopnuclearpowerweneededequationsandengineering.Becauselanguageisrevelatory(asWesternscienceassumes),ateamofengineersandscientistscan

communicatetheirknowledgetoplanatriptothemoon.Weusewordsallthetimetorevealtruthtoeachother.Wealsousewords todeceiveandmanipulateothers.Butwhydoes languagework?Ifmanismerelyanotheranimal,likeadog,howcanthelawsortruthsthatgovernthisuniversebeputintowords?Einsteinwrotethatthisproblem“leavesusinawe,butwhichweshallneverunderstand….Fortheeternalmysteryoftheworldiscomprehensibility….Thefactthatitiscomprehensibleisamiracle.”3Yet,heknewsomethingsforsure.Heknewtheearthwasroundandthatitrevolvedaroundthesun.WeknowenoughtruthaboutthesolarsystemtodreamofatriptoMars.Thosewhomaintainthatwordshavenothingtodowithtruthareclearlywrong.HelenKeller’sstorygavecredencetothebiblicalideathatourwordsarerevelatoryandcreativebecausebehindtheuniversearewords—theCreator’swords.Wordsaretoolsweusetodistinguishsolidsfromliquids,waterfrommilk,andhotmilkfromcold.If

realitywereone,asTripathibelieved,wecouldnotknowtruthwithoutkillinglanguagebyrepeatingmeaninglessmantrasorsoundssuchasom.Transcendingverbal,intellectualcategorieswouldnotsuffice.Tripathisaidthattheenlightenedsageshadtotranscendevengoodandevil.Onlythencouldtheymergeintotheonedivineconsciousness.Wordslikemorals,hebelieved,removeusfromreality(oneness)intodualityorplurality.Ourpersistenceinmakingvaluejudgmentswasproofofourmetaphysicalignorance.Tripathiwasdeeplyreligious.However,atthattimenobodytookhimseriously.Hewasvirtuallyalone

in his belief, and sometimes not sure if he believed it himself. His belief system gained somerespectabilityinIndiaonlyinthe1980s—afterWesterninterestinHindugurusturnedintotheNewAgemovement.TheBible’sbeginninggavemeaperspectivethatdifferedfromTripathi’sHinduismandfromacademic

atheism.Goddidnotmerelysay,“Lettherebelight.”Hejudgedthelightasgood.Mydog,Jackie,might

haveapreferencebetweenreceivingawholesteakorleftoverbones.Buthedidnotseemtojudgemeasgoodorbadforgivinghimoneortheother.Makingvaluejudgmentsisuniquelyhuman.Mymindwentbacktothelotusinmygarden.Whywasitsobeautiful?Plantsusedfragrantflowers

toattractbutterflies,butwhydidtheypossessbeauty?Whataboutthoseplantsthatdidn’tneedtoattractinsects?Itwasnotjusttheflowersthatwerebeautiful.Sometreeslookedbeautifultoo!Whywerebutterfliesandtreesbeautiful?Ifbeautywasmerelyameansofattractingmates,thenwhydotreesandbutterfliesappearpleasant

tous?Theirpleasantnessseemstoharmtheflowersandthebutterflies:girlspluckflowersandboyschasebutterflies(beforetheystartchasinggirls!).Bothfriendswhoviewedtheuniverseasaproductofblindchance,andTripathi,whoviewedthe

universeassynonymouswithGod,rejectedthenotionsofgoodandbad.Forthemallvaluejudgments—rightandwrong,beautifulandugly,trueandfalse—wereatbestsubjectiveandatworstharmful.Boyswhoclaimedthatnothingwasbeautifuloruglyinitself,however,keptlookingforbeautifulgirls—asthoughbeautywasinthegirl,notinhereyes.Girls, too,workedhardatlookingpretty.Standardsofbeauty,asofmorals,indeeddifferedfromculturetocultureandagetoage.Didthatmakeallvaluessubjective? Even in the twentieth century, we had entire castes in India whose socially sanctionedprofessionwastosteal.Wasstealingthenmerelyculturalpreference,orwasitbadinitself?Sittinginthatdarkroom,mymindwasilluminatedbythelittlephrase,“AndGodsawthatthelightwas

good.”Itgaveacredibleexplanationofwhywemakevaluejudgments:

Moraljudgments:Thisisgood;thatisevil.Aestheticjudgments:Thisisbeautiful;thatisugly.Epistemologicaljudgments:Thatistrue;thisisfalse.

ThesecondchapterofGenesisexplainsbeautywhenitsaysthatGodplantedagardenandmade“everytreethatispleasanttothesight.”4Inchapters3–6,GenesisdescribeshumanchoicesandactionsthatGodsaidwerenotgood.Coulditbethatwemakevaluejudgmentsbecausetheyareintrinsictowhatitmeanstobeaperson(likeGod),asopposedtobeingmereanimals?Myintellectualenvironmenttoldmethatwemakeamistakeeverytimewemakeavaluejudgment.

Those who said we shouldn’t judge kept judging those who judged. That showed that making valuejudgmentsisanintegral,inescapablepartofwhoweareashumanbeings.Itisbasictoculturalcreativityandtothepossibilityofreform.Wedon’tfixwhatisnotbroken.Tochangeanything,wemustfirstjudgewhatisnotgoodorrightortrue.ThefirstchaptersoftheBible,therefore,seemedtofitrealitybetterthantheintellectualoptionsofferedbymyuniversityorfriends.IbegantogetexcitedabouttheBiblebecauseitprovidedmewithexplanations.ItmadegreatersenseofwhoIwas—agodlikepersonwithacapacitytoknow,experience,andenjoygoodness,beauty,andtruth.AlthoughIfoundtheearlychaptersofGenesisexciting,itdidnottakelongtogetintotheboringand

repulsivepartsoftheBible.BythetimeIgottothebooksofKingsandChronicles,Ihadhadenough.Iwasreadytogiveup.WhywasIreadingJewishhistory?IhardlyknewanythingofIndianhistory.WhyshouldIreadstoriesofJewishkingslongdeadandgone?JustasIwascontemplatingclosingthisboringbookonceandforall,somethingintriguedme.Ourfolk

historytoldusofgreatandgloriousrulers.ThisJewishbook,incontrast,toldmeaboutthewickednessofJewishrulers.Why?ThepriestsmusthavewrittentheBible,Ithought.Itistypicalforpriests(wecallthemBrahminsin

India)tohaterulers(theKshatriyas).Butno.TheBiblesaidthatthepriests—infact,theentirereligiousestablishmentoftheJews—becamesocorruptthatGoddestroyedhisowntempleandsenthispriestsintoslavery.Wellthen,theBiblemustbe“subaltern”history,writtenbyordinarypeople,oppressedbothbypriests

andkings.Butno,thisJewishbookseemedmoreanti-SemiticthanalmostanythingHitlerhadpenned.TheseJewishscriptures(theOldTestament)condemnedtheJews*ascorrupt,covetous,crooked,stupid,stiff-necked,andrebellious.**Inthatcase,Ithought,theBiblehadtobetheworkofprophets.Theylovecondemningeverybody.

AnotherlookatthoseboringbooksofKingsandChronicles,however,showedthatmostoftheprophetswerefalseprophetsandthegoodoneslostout.Theycouldnotsavethemselves,letaloneaccomplishtheirmissionofsavingtheirnation.Theirnationdisintegratedbeforetheirveryeyes.TheBiblewasaveryselectivenarrationandinterpretationofJewishhistory.ItclaimedtobeGod’s

explanationofwhytheentirenationwasdestroyedandwhen,why,andhowitwouldberebuilt.AlthoughIstudiedpoliticalscience(besidesphilosophy),noneofmyprofessorstoldusthatthese“boring”booksof the Bible were the very source of modern democracy—including in India. They thought that ourdemocracyhadcomefromAthens.Laterinthisbook,wewillexaminesuchsecularmyths.Tocontinuewithmypilgrimage,readingthose“boring”bookshelpedmeunderstandonebasicdifferencebetweenliteratureandrevelation.Literatureissomethingweinterpret.Revelationalsointerpretsandevaluatesus.Itstandsaboveus,

judges us, and calls us back to sanity. Repeatedly through Bible history, the Jews degenerated intowickedness.Therevelation,however,remainedatranscendentstandardthatpromotedself-criticismandreform. It even deconstructed false ideologies that people built around the revelation. That prophetictraditionofself-criticismmadetheJewsablessingtotheworld.RevelationwasthesourcebywhichhumanitycouldknowGod’sloveandjudgmentsimultaneously.ThishelpedmeunderstandwhytheBiblemade it possible for the West to reform itself repeatedly, in spite of many periods of moral andintellectualdegeneration.GoddeclaredthroughtheprophetIsaiah,“ThisistheoneIesteem:hewhoishumbleandcontriteinspirit,andtremblesatmyword.”5Onlythepersonhumbledbyahigherauthoritycouldexperiencetruereform.But why should I, an Indian young man, bother to read the Bible even if it really is God’s

interpretationofJewishhistory?I had no idea that this simple question was to set the course of my life. At first glance the Bible

appeared to be a collection of unrelated books of history, poetry, rituals, philosophy, biography, andprophecyheldtogetheronlybyabinder’sstitchandglue.ButIonlyhadtoreadGenesis11and12torealize that seemingly unrelated and different books of the Bible had a clear plot, a thread that tiedtogetherallthebooks,aswellastheOldandtheNewTestaments.Sinhadbroughtacurseuponallthenationsoftheearth.GodcalledAbrahamtofollowhimbecausehewantedtoblessallthenationsoftheearththroughAbraham’sdescendants.6 Itdidn’t take longtorealize thatGod’sdesire toblesshumanbeingsbeginsintheveryfirstchapterofGenesisandculminatesinthelastchapterofthelastbookwithagrandvisionofhealingforallnations.7Theimplicationwasobvious:TheBiblewasclaimingthatIshouldreaditbecauseitwaswrittento

blessmynationandme.TherevelationthatGodwantedtoblessmynationofIndiaamazedme.IrealizeditwasapredictionIcouldtest.ItwouldconfirmordenytheBible’sreliability.IftheBibleisGod’sword,thenhadhekeptthisword?Hadheblessed“allthenationsoftheearth”?HadmycountrybeenblessedbythechildrenofAbraham?Ifso,thatwouldbeagoodreasonforme,anIndian,tocheckoutthisbook.My investigation of whether God had truly blessed India through the Bible yielded incredible

discoveries:theuniversitywhereIwasstudying,themunicipalityanddemocracyIlivedin,theHighCourtbehindmyhouseandthelegalsystemitrepresented,themodernHindithatIspokeasmymothertongue,thesecularnewspaperforwhichIhadbeguntowrite,thearmycantonmentwestoftheroadIlived on, the botanical garden to the east, the public library near our garden, the railway lines thatintersectedinmycity,themedicalsystemIdependedon,theAgriculturalInstituteacrosstown—allof

thesecametomycitybecausesomepeopletooktheBibleseriously.Ihadalwaysheardthatthenineteenth-century“IndianRenaissance”beganwithRajaRamMohanRoy.

IwasamazedtodiscoverthatitactuallybeganwiththearrivaloftheBible.WewerealwaystoldthatIndia’sfreedomwasaresultofMahatmaGandhi’sstruggle;itwasasurprisetolearnthat,inreality,India’sfreedomwasafruitof theBible.BeforetheBible,ourpeopledidnotevenhavethemodernnotionsofnationorfreedom.HindugeneralssustainedtheMogulrule inIndia.But thatwas just thebeginning.

TheBiblewastheverysoulofWesterncivilization.ItwasthebookofthesecondmillenniumafterChrist.ItbecametheforcethatglobalizedWesterncivilization.8

*Forfurtherdiscussionofthistopicpleaseseechapter13.*IncludingtheIsraelites.NoteverydescendentofJacobisaJew,butinthisbookIamfollowingthecurrentpopularusage.**LaterIrealizedthattheBiblecondemnedJewsfortheirimmorality,notforbeingJews.Notallcriticismofapeopleisracism.Parentswholovetheirchildrenthemost,holdthemmostaccountablefortheirmisconducts.

PartIII

THESEEDSOFWESTERNCIVILIZATION

TheBiblewasonebookthatliterateAmericansintheseventeenth,eighteenth,andnineteenthcenturiescouldbeexpectedtoknowwell.Biblicalimageryprovidedthebasicframeworkfor

imaginativethoughtinAmericaupuntilquiterecenttimesand,unconsciously,itscontrolisstillformidable.

—ROBERTN.BELLAH

ChapterFive

HUMANITY

WHATISTHEWEST’SGREATESTDISCOVERY?

Onethousandyearsago,theIslamiccivilizationhadsurpassedEuropeinnearlyeveryrespect.Islamicrulerswerewealthier,Islamicarmiesweremorepowerful,andIslamicintellectualshadadvancedfurtherinthearts,scholarship,science,andtechnology.Butsomethingchanged.Now,thepeopleofSpaintranslateasmanybooksintoSpanisheachyearas

ArabshavetranslatedintoArabicinthelastthousandyears.Ifyoutakeoiloutoftheequation,thenthe5millionpeopleofFinlandexportmoregoodsandserviceseachyearthanthe165millionoftheArabworld.OilcanbetakenoutoftheequationbecausetheBritishdiscoveredtheoilintheMiddleEast,American companies began pumping and refining it, the production of oil is sustained by engineersrecruitedfromtheWesternworld,andmuchofthebusinessdependsontheUSmilitarykeepingtyrantsandmilitantsfromsettingfirestooilwellsordisruptingitsflow.WhatbroughtaboutthisdramaticriseoftheWestwhiletherestoftheworldstagnated?Mysecular

professorstaughtthatthesecretwastheWest’s“discovery”ofhumandignityduringtheRenaissance.Thatistrue.ButtheyalsotaughtthattheRenaissancehumanistsdiscoveredthisconceptintheGreekandLatinclassics.Thatisamyth.Althoughclassicalwritersheldmanynobleideals,theinherentvalueanddignityofeachhumanbeingwasnotamongthem.ThisuniqueideacamefromtheBible.

SHEELA’SDEATHANDAGLIMPSEINTOMYWORLD

In1976,RuthandIlefturbanIndiatolivewiththeruralpooroutsidethevillageofGatheora.Whenwearrived,Ruthdecidedtovisiteveryfamilyinthevillage.Everydayshewouldvisitafewfamiliestofindouthowwecouldservethem.Ononesuchvisit,RuthmetLalta,aten-year-oldgirlfromalow-castefamily.SheaskedLalta,“Howmanybrothersandsistersdoyouhave?”“Four…ormaybethree,”Laltareplied.“Isitthreeorfour?”Ruthwascurious.“Well,three.Thefourthisalmostdead.”“MayIseehim?”ThechildwasagirlnamedSheela.Inthemiddleofawindowless,dingyroom,aneighteen-month-old

livingskeletonwaslyingonabarestringcot,pusoozingfromsorescoveringherbodyandhead,withfliesswarmingoverherbecauseshecouldnotraiseherhandtochasethemaway.Herthighswereonlyasthickasanadult’sthumb.Sheelawassoweakthatshecouldnotevencry.Sheonlysighed.TearswelledupinRuth’seyes.“What’swrongwithher?”sheaskedthemother.“Oh,shedoesn’teatanything,”themothersaidwithasmirk.“Shethrowsupwhateverwegiveher.”“Whydon’tyoutakehertothehospital?”“Howcanweaffordtoseeadoctor?”“Really!”Ruthwasastonishedbytheextentoftheirpoverty.“Iwillpayforhertreatment.”

“Butwhereisthetimetogotothehospital?”protestedthemother.“Whatdoyoumean?Yourdaughterisdyingandyoudon’thavethetimetotakehertothehospital?”“Ihavethreeotherchildren,”saidthemother,“andahusbandtolookafter.Besides,Ican’tfindmy

wayaroundinthehospital.”“Askyourhusbandtocomewithyou,”Ruthsuggested.“Hehasnotime.Hehastolookafterthecattleandthefield.”“TellhimIwillpayforhimtohiresomeonetolookafterhisfieldforoneday.Iwillalsoaccompany

you.Manyhospitalstaffmembersareourfriends.”Themotherfoundaconvenientwaytostopbeingnagged.“Iwillspeaktomyhusband.”Ruthwasdelighted.“Iwillsendmyhusbandthiseveningtotalktoyourhusband.InthemorningIwill

takeyoutothehospital.”RuthhurriedhometomakesurethatIwoulddomypartinhermissiontosaveSheela.WhenIvisited

thefamilythatevening,theycameoutofthehousetotalktome.Someneighborsalsocameouttoseewhatwashappening.Thecouplehaddecidedthattheywerenotgoingtothehospital.“Why?”Iwassurprised.“Wedon’thavethemoney.”“Butmywifetoldyouthatwewillpay.”“Wedon’twanttogetintodebt.”“Well,I’llputitinwritinginfrontofthesewitnesses,”Isaid,pointingtotheneighbors,“thatwewill

neveraskforthemoneytobereturnedtous.Itisagift.”“Wedon’thavethetime.”“Butmywifetoldyouthatwewillpayforyoutohirealaborerfortheday.”“Whyareyoubotheringus?”Theywereirritatedbymypersistence.“Sheisourdaughter.”Icouldn’tacceptthattheywantedtheirdaughtertodie,becauseIdidn’tthinkthataparentcouldbeso

cruel.YetIcouldn’tinterprettheirbehaviorinanyotherway.So,Idecidedtousethepressureofpublicopiniononthem.“Areyoukillingthisgirl?”Iaskedthembluntlyinaslightlyraisedvoice.“Ofcoursenot!Butwhatcanwedoifshewon’teatandwillvomiteverythingwegiveher?”“Ifyoucan’tdoanythingforher,thenwhydon’tyouletthedoctorsdosomething?”“Becausewecan’taffordit.”TheywereasstubbornasI.“Look.”Ihadrunoutofpatience.“Ifyoudon’ttakethisgirltothehospitaltomorrow,thenIamgoing

tothepolicetoreportthatyouarekillingher.Howcanyoubesocruel?Whydon’tyoupickupaknifeandstabher?Whymakehersufferinthisway?”ThenIturnedtotheneighbors.“Whydon’tyousaysomething?Don’tyoucareforthishelplessgirl?”Ihadexpectedtheneighborstooffermoralsupport.ButtheylookedatmeasthoughIwereafool.

Finally,anelderlyneighborhelpedresolveourdispute.HesaidtoSheela’sparents,“Look!Hemightactuallygotothepolice.If thepolicetakeSheelatothehospital, thenyouwillhavetopaythebill.Thereforeitisbetterforyoutogowiththem.”Dr.MategaonkeradmittedSheelaandputheronintravenousmedicationandfeeding.Afteraweekor

so,themedicalstaffwasabletostartfeedingherviaanosetube.Afteranotherweek,theyrecommendedthatwetakehertoourhomeandkeepfeedingherfluidsthroughthesametubeuntilshewashealthyenoughtoeatonherown.Atthattime,ourfamilyhadbeguntoexpandintoacommunity.Afewyoungpeoplelivedwithus,

includingMark,astudentfromtheHNGR(HumanNeedsandGlobalResources)programatWheatonCollegeinAmerica.TheylovedcaringforSheela,includinghand-washingherdirty,stinky,clothdiapers.Sheelarespondedtotheloveandcuddlesasmuchastothemedicationandfood.Shebecameadelight.Butitdidn’tlastlong.Onemorninghermothercamegrumbling,“Thevillagefolkaresayingthatyou

arecorruptingourdaughter.Ifsheeatsinyourhome,ourcastewillbepollutedandSheelawillbecomeaChristian.”RuthtriedtoassurethemotherthatshewasverywelcometotakeSheelahomewithher.Wewere

pleasedwithwhatwehadbeenabletodoandweregladtohandSheelabacktoherparents.Withinafewweeks,however,welearnedthatSheelawasbacktoherpreviouscondition.Thewholeprocesshadtoberepeated.Ruthwenttopersuadethemother.ThenIwenttopersuadeand

threatenthefather.RuthtookSheelaandthemothertothehospital.Sheelawasputonanintravenoustube,fedthroughhernose,andsenttoourhome.Thenhermothercametofight.Ruthassumedthatthemotherhadlearnedherlesson,soshesentSheelabacktoherhomeagain.Beforeweknewit,Sheelawasdead.Sheela’sparentsstarvedhertodeathbecausetheysawherasaliability.Theyalreadyhadadaughterto

babysittheirsonsandtocleanandcookforthefamily.Asecondgirlwasanunnecessaryburden.Theywouldhavetofeedherfortentotwelveyears.Thentheywouldneedtogointodebttofindadowrytomarryheroff.Herin-lawsmighttorturehertoextractmoremoneyfromthem.Inthosedays,accordingtoournationalpress,everyyearin-lawswerekillingaroundthreehundredyoungbridesinournation’scapital,ineffortstoextractmoredowryfromtheirparents.*Butadowryisnottheendofcosts.Thedaughterwouldreturntoherparents’hometodeliverherchildren.Whyshouldtheytakeonthislifelongburden,evenifsomeonewasofferingfreemedicalcareandmilkforafewweeks?RuthandIcouldnotunderstandSheela’sparentsbecauseourworldviewwassodifferentfromtheirs.

Theylookedatchildrenasassetsorliabilities,conveniencesorburdens.Welookedatthemashumanbeingswithintrinsicworth.WebelievedthatGod’scommand,“Youshallnotmurder,”gavetoeveryhumanpersonafundamentalrighttolife.WedidnotexpecttogainanythingfromSheela.WebelievedthatlovingGodrequiredlovingher.WeintervenedbecausewebelievedthatGod’sWordcommandedusto“speakupforthosewhocannot

speakforthemselves,fortherightsofallwhoaredestitute.Speakupandjudgefairly;defendtherightsofthepoorandneedy.”1From the perspective of their own culture, Sheela’s parents were not wicked people. They were

ordinaryhumanbeings,asgoodorbadasanyoneelse.Theylovedtheirchildrenasmuchasanyoneelsedid.IftheyhadhadanAmericanlawyer,hewouldhavearguedthattheykilledtheirdaughteroutoflove:it was “mercy” killing—euthanasia—and no different than what practically every woman does whoabortsherunwantedbaby.TheparentsknewthatSheela’s lifeasanunwantedgirl in theircasteandculturewasgoingtobeespeciallymiserable;herfuturewasdoomedtobedark.Therefore,outoftheirdeepcompassionforhertheyshortenedhersuffering.This,Ibelieve,wasindeedthecase.ThelawyerwouldhavegoneontoarguethatpeopleinamoreprivilegedpositionhavenorighttojudgeSheela’sparents,whoweretrappedinaclosedcircleofpoverty.Sheela’s parents believed that, like themselves, Sheela was trapped inescapably in the clutches of

poverty.TheyheldtotraditionalHindufatalism.Theydidnotbelievetheycouldchangehistory—thattheycouldtranscendfateandkarma,natureandculture.Forthemitwastoorevolutionarytothinkthatashumanbeingstheywerehistoryshaping,culturecreatingcreaturesandthatSheela’sfuturewasnotfatedtobebleak.Thusourconflictwasnotmerelyoverethicalprinciples;itwasaclashofworldviews.ForapersonunfamiliarwiththeHinduworldview,itwillbehardtounderstandhowparentscouldkill

achildwiththeimplicitconsentofawholevillage.PerhapsavisionofoneofthefathersofmodernHinduism, Ramakrishna Paramhansa, would help. In one of his mystic visions, Ramakrishna saw hisMother-goddess,Kali,ariseoutofthedarkwatersoftheriver.Ashewatched,shedeliveredababyrightbeforehiseyesandthenproceededtoeathernewbornchild.Inherhandsthechildappearednormalfleshandblood,butinhermouththechildseemedtobeempty.ThesaintinterpretedhisvisionusingthesameBuddhistconceptsthatKurtCobainlivedby,suchas,

“Lifeisempty.”AlthoughRamakrishnawasaHindu,hewasabletoadoptaBuddhistviewbecausethe

BuddhistteachingofAnatman(non-self)hasthesamepractical implicationastheHindudoctrinesofreincarnationandBrahma(universalself).Thesedoctrinesimplythatindividualityisanillusionandthatsalvationrequiresdissolutionofanindividual’sconsciousnessintoauniversalconsciousnessorGod.TheMother-goddesscouldkillherbabybecausefaithinreincarnationtrivializesdeathaswellaslife.

In the well-known Hindu scriptures, BhagavadGita, the god Krishna encourages Arjuna to kill hiscousinsandteachersbecausereincarnationmeansthatdeathforasoulislikechangingclothes.“Asamanleavesanoldgarmentandputsononethatisnew,thespiritleaveshismortalbody,andthenputsononethatisnew.”2TheLordKrishnaadvisedArjunanottofeelpityforthosehewastokillbecausethesoulisneverreallybornandneverdies.“Thoudostfeelpitywherepityhasnoplace.Wisemenfeelnopityeitherforwhatdiesorwhatlives.ThereneverwasatimewhenIandthouwerenotinexistence,andalltheseprincestoo,norwillthedaycomehereafter,whenallofusshallceasetobe.”3Sheela’sparentshadnohopeforherbecause theydidnotknowthatSheelahadanotherFather in

heavenwhowasnotboundbynature,history,culture,orkarma.HecouldchangetheirfutureashedidforJoseph,wholanguishedinjailforyearseventhoughhewasnotguiltyofbadkarma.4AsIbegantoseethatthesedifferencesinworldviewweremattersoflifeanddeathandthatfighting

povertyrequiredfightingfatalism,Ibegantospeaktoourneighborsaboutourneedtoknowandtrusttheliving God. This connection between the knowledge of God (theology) and the knowledge of man(anthropology)iscrucialtounderstandingthemodernWest.

HUMANISM

MyIndianfriendswhohavebeensecularizedbycollegeeducationbelieve,justasIdo,thathumanscancreateadifferentandbetterfutureforthemselves.TheyagreethatthedestinyofagirllikeSheelaisnotdeterminedbykarma.Sheisnotfatedtolivealifeofmisery.Andmyfriendsdon’tpointtotheBibleortotheologicalcreedstojustifythisbelief.Tothem,it’scommonsense.ButsuchanideaisnotcommonsenseintraditionalIndia.Mostfamiliesthatharass,torture,oreven

killtheirdaughters-in-lawfordowryarewelleducated.Thisideawasnotcommonsenseinancientormedievalcivilizations.InfanticidewasacommonpracticeinancientGreeceandRome.Notionsofhumandignity and rights came to India with Christian education. We will look at the consequences of theirsecularization.Forthemomentthequestionis,howdidtheWest’sconceptionofhumanbeingsbecomesoradicallydifferentfromalltherest?WhatimpactdidthathaveonWesternethics,politics,science,technology,andmedicine?

Europe had become “Christian” long before AD 1500, but that did not make most aspects of itsworldviewbiblical.Forexample, thebiblicalviewofmanwasburiedunderEurope’spre-Christianpaganism,theGreco-Romancosmologicalworldview,andIslamicfatalism.Paganism taught the West to fear and worship spirits, demigods, and gods. This folk spirituality

continued in medieval Christendom in the form of fear of spirits and prayers to saints and angels. Itconsideredhumanbeingsinferiortoangels.Whiletheuneducatedmassespersistedinpre-Christianpaganism,themedievalphilosophers,called

thescholastics,cameundertheinfluenceoftheancientGreekcosmologicalworldview.MostGreeksdidnotsharethecontemporaryideathattheuniversebeganwitha“bigbang”recently.Theyassumedthatthecosmoswas theultimatereality.Gods,spirits,angels, ideas,andhumanbeingswereallpartsof thecosmos.Eachhadafixedplaceintheschemeofthings.ThismeantthateventheSupremeGodcouldnotchangethecourseofcosmichistory.Andwhenmantriedtorisebeyondthestatusassignedtohim,hecommittedhubris,thesinofarroganceandoverweeningpride.Neithermen,norgods,northeSupreme

Godcouldchangenatureorhistory’sdownwardcycle.EachcycleofcosmichistorybeganasaGoldenAgeanddegeneratedintoSilver,Bronze,andIronAgesbeforebeingdestroyed,onlytobeginagainwithanotherGoldenAge.When Muslims conquered the Byzantine Empire, they acquired Christian monasteries that had

preserved Greek learning. These were translated in Arabic and then retranslated into Latin andtransmittedintoWesternEurope.Alongwithmanygoodthings,theyalsotransmittedIslamicfatalism.Thecumulative impactofpaganism, thecosmologicalworldview,andfatalismwas tomakethemedieval“Man”ahelplesscreaturewholivedindreadofknownandunknownforces.Man’s“fate”or“fortune”wasnotinhishands.Someoftheforcesthatruledhisdestinywereextremelycapriciousandcompletelyinsensitive.Astrologersandfortune-tellerswereofsomevalue,butultimatelythey,too,weresubjecttothesamedarkforces.Humanlife,inshort,wasatragedy.Oneofthemostcapableofthemedievalpopes,InnocentIII(1160–1216),spelledoutthistragicview

oflifeinTheMiseryofMan.Hewantedtowriteitscounterpart,TheDignityofMan,butneverdid.Aworkbythattitleappearedonlyin1486,5acenturyafterthepioneersoftheintellectualfermentknownastheRenaissancediscoveredintheBibletheideaofhumanity’suniquedignityandabilities.MyprofessorsbelievedthesecularmyththatthenotionofhumandignityoriginatedinancientGreece,

eventhoughasearlyas1885,HenryThode6hadalreadydemonstratedthatthenaturalismofRenaissanceart came from the Franciscan tradition, especially from the fourteenth-century thinkers who rejectedPlatonism and espoused a philosophy called nominalism. Paul Sabatier, who wrote an importantbiography of St. Francis,7 supported the same general conclusion. These insights provided a solidinterpretationalframeworkforscholarssuchasWallaceFerguson8andCharlesTrinkaus.Thiscentury-longresearchintoprimarysourcesculminatedinatwo-volumeworkbyTrinkaus,InOurImageandLikeness:HumanityandDivinityinItalianHumanistThought.9HeconcludedthatalthoughRenaissancehumanistsread,enjoyed,quoted,andpromotedGreekandRomanclassicsandIslamicscholarship,theirpeculiarviewofhumandignitycameoutoftheBibleindeliberateoppositiontotheGreek,Roman,andIslamicthought.The Renaissance’s new vision of man was inspired by the ancient church fathers, especially St.

AugustineandLactantius,areligiousadvisortoConstantineI,whowroteexcellentLatinevenifsomeaspectsofhistheologywerenotwellinformed.Theirviewofman,inturn,wasderivedfromthefirstchapteroftheBible:“ThenGodsaid,‘Letusmakemaninourimage,afterourlikeness.’”10Trinkausbeganhisstudybyasserting:

Renaissancehumanistsevolvedandelaboratedsignificantnewconceptionsofhumannature….BeginningwithPetrarch,theyrarelydeviatefromatenureofthesevisionsofmanthatisdifficulttoseparatefromtheirimageofGod.Indeed,theyfinditalmostimpossibletodefinemanandtodiscusshimexceptintermsofhisrelationshiptothenatureofthedivineanditsinfluenceandactionsinthisworld.“Anthropology”and“theology”belongtogetherinRenaissancethought.11

The modern West’s understanding of man grew out of medieval theology’s understanding of God’s

relationshiptotheuniverse,someofwhichwasadeliberaterejectionofkeyGreekideas.Forexample,ourspecieshasauniqueability:weexperiencenotonlythematerialuniverse,butalsoideasthatmayormaynotcorrespondtoreality.Todaymanypeopleassumethatmattercanexistonitsownwithoutmind(humanorsuperhuman),butthatideascannotexistontheirown.TheGreekphilosopherPlatoheldtheoppositebelief.HethoughtthatIdeasweretheprimaryreality,andthatthematerialworldwasashadowoftheIdeasthatexistindependently.Achair,inotherwords,wasanimperfectshadowof“chairness”thatexistsintherealrealm,therealmofIdeas.Plato’sphilosophyimpliedthathumanbeingsdon’tcreate;wemakecopiesorshadowsofreality—Ideas.ButwhataboutGod:Doeshecreateordoeshealsocopyideasthatalreadyexistinthetrue(Platonic)realmofIdeas?

ThemedievalnominalistsrejectedthisGreekassumptionbecausetheBiblebeginswiththewords,“Inthebeginning,Godcreatedtheheavensandtheearth.”12TheGreekshadtobewrong,thenominalistsreasoned,becauseGoddidnotcopyideasthatalreadyexisted.Hecreatedoutofnothing,exnihilo.ThedoctrineofcreationoutofnothingimpliedthatGodwasnotapartofthecosmos—neitheroftheworldofideasnoroftheworldofmatter.Hewasfree,notboundbyanypreexistingideas,order,orlogic.Theorderthatweseeintheuniverseispartofhiscreation.The next step, exploring human freedom and man’s relationship with nature, was the work of

Renaissancewriterscalledthehumanists.Thehumanistsacceptedthenominalists’ideaofGod’sfreedomanddevelopeditsimplications.SinceGodisfreeandnotboundbytheworldofpreexistingideasormatter,andsincemanismadeinGod’simage,manmustalsobefree.Thatmeantmanwasnotcreatedtobeahelplesscreaturetrappedinaninescapablecycleofmisery.

THERENAISSANCEDISCOVERYOFMAN

OneoftheseminalthinkerswhoformulatedtheRenaissanceconceptionofhumandignitywasColuccioSalutati (1331–1406).Hiswritingswrestlewith the ideasofGod’sprovidence,man’sfreewill,andman’sdignity.HeopposedIslamicfatalismonthegroundthattheGodwhorevealedhimselftoMoseswasfree.ItwasSalutatiwhoreestablishedtheAugustinianideaofthefreewillofman—whichbecameafundamental assumption of Western civilization through thinkers such as Martin Luther and JonathanEdwards.Followinghim,LorenzoValla(1406–57)becamethethirdkeyRenaissancefiguretodiscusstheissueofhumandignity.LikePetrarchandSalutati,VallawasalsoadevoutChristian,anevangelicalCatholicwhoderivedhisvisionofmanfromhisvisionofGod.TheOrationontheDignityofManwastheworkoftheirsuccessor,PicoDellaMirandola(1463–94),

who articulated Valla’s idea more energetically. Sometimes Mirandola’s enthusiasm concerning thedignity of man made him forget that man had misused his mind and his will in rebelling against hisCreator.Thereforehumanintellectwasfallenasmuchashumanwill.Nevertheless,MirandolafollowedSt.Augustineinarguingthatthedignityofmanconsistedinthefactthatmanwasnotcreatedasafixedpartofthestructureoftheuniverse.Aftertheuniversehadbeencompleted,Godgavemantheroleofviewingitandadmiringitsmaker,withthedutytoreaffirmtheCreatorbyimitatinghisattributes,suchaslove,rationality,andjustice.AnotherofPico’swell-knownworksisHeptaplus,acommentaryonthefirstchapterofGenesis.In

thishedescribedGod’ssixdaysoflaborandseventhdayofrest.ThisworkistheclinchingevidencethattheRenaissanceviewofmancamefromanexegesisofGenesis1:26.ItwastheBiblethatenabledPicotorejectpaganandIslamicastrology.Hewrote,“Thestarscannotruleusbytheirmaterialpartswhichareasvileasours,sothatweshouldbewareofworshippingtheworkoftheartificerasmoreperfectthanits author.”13 Pico’s readers were fascinated with astrology, but he urged them to worship God:“Therefore,letusfear,loveandvenerateHiminwhom,asPaulsaid,areallcreatedthingsbothvisibleandinvisible,whoisthebeginninginwhomGodmadeheavenandearth,thatisChrist…ThereforeletusformnotstellarimagesinmetalsbuttheimageoftheWordofGodinoursouls.”14

THEINCARNATION:THEBASISOFHUMANDIGNITY

IslamicintellectualswereascompetentasEuropeans.TheyhadtheGreekclassicsandeventheJewish(OldTestament)ideaofcreation.SomeMuslimscholarsalsoquestionedastrology.Whydidn’tMuslimscholarsmakethenotionofhumandignityanaspectofIslamicculture?TheansweristhattheRenaissancewritersdidnotderivetheirhighviewofmanfromonlyoneverse

oftheBiblethatdescribesthecreationofman.Theyfoundhumandignityaffirmedmostsupremelyinthe

Bible’steachingontheincarnationofChrist.TheNewTestamenttaughtthatGodsawthemiseryofmanandcameasaman,JesusChrist,tomakehumanbeingssonsanddaughtersofGod.ButIslamdeniedGodtherighttobecomeaman.AccordingtoIslam,forGodtobecomeacreatureaslowlyasmanwouldviolatehisdignity.Byaskingrhetorically,“CanGodalsobecomeadog?”Muslimapologistsreducedmantothelevelof

beasts.TheyfollowedtheGreeksinputtinglimitsonwhatGodcouldorcouldnotdo.Incontrast,thenominalists believed that God was free—he was not limited by our presuppositions or by logicalconclusionsderivedfromourassumptions.IfGodwasnotboundbyhumanlogic,theninordertoknowtruthwehadtogobeyondlogictoobservewhatGodhadactuallydone.Whatifhedidlovehumanbeingsenoughtocometothisearthtosavethemandmakethemhisbelovedchildren?Suchanactwouldimplythathumanbeingswereuniqueinthecreatedorder.FarfromviolatingGod’sdignity,theincarnationwastobetheultimateproofofman’sdignity:ofthe

possibilityofman’ssalvation,ofamanorawomanbecomingafriendandchildofGod.Theincarnationwould make human beings of greater worth than the angels. Indeed, the Bible portrayed angels as“ministeringspirits”:“Inspeakingoftheangels…‘Hemakeshisangelswinds,hisservantsflamesoffire’…Arenotallangelsministeringspiritssenttoservethosewhowillinheritsalvation?”15Its failure to appreciate the value and dignity of human beings prevented Islamic civilization from

developing the full potential of its people. It trapped the masses without the fundamental rights andlibertiesthatmadeitpossiblefortheWesttoovertakeIslamiccivilization.ThepoetPetrarchusedtheincarnationasacentralargumentindevelopingRenaissancehumanism.He

rested his case on the Bible and focused his criticism on Aristotle and Aristotle’s popular IslamicadvocateAverröesorIbn-Rushd(1126–98).TrinkauswrotethataccordingtoPetrarch,“Man’snaturalknowledgeofhimselfleadsonlytoaknowledgeofhismiseryandhencetodespair,sincemanisevenfartherfromGodthanearthisfromheaven.HowthenisthegapbetweenmanandGodbridged?OnlybyIncarnationwhichiskeytoPetrarch’sreligiousthoughtandofhumanistreligiousthoughtingeneral.”16ExceptforSeneca(4BC–AD65),alltheancientGreekandRomanwritersinsistedontheabsolute

separationofdivinity,leavingmaninhismisery,withoutremedy.Senecaalonebelievedthat“Godwillcometomen;nomindisgoodwithoutGod.”WhilePetrarchinsistedontheinfinitedistancebetweenmanandGod,herejoicedthatthedistancehadbeenbridgedbythemysteryofdivinegrace.HisgracebroughtGodclosetoman.Itenabledhimtoliftmanabovehismisery.God’sdescentmeansman’sascent.Misery,helplessness,despondency,andeternalself-conflictare

normalformen.Theycanberesolvedbecausethetranscendentcanalsobeimmanent—“Emmanuel,”thatis, God with us. One who will wipe away every tear and remove the curse of sin, including death.TrinkausconcludedthattheincarnationofChrist“isoneofthetheologicalfoundationsofthehumanists’much-repeated themeof thedignityandexcellenceofman.”17 It reversed the traditionalemphasisonhumanlowliness.Petrarchputitthisway:

SurelyourGodhascometoussothatwemightgotoHim,andthatsameGodofoursinteractedwithhumanitywhenHelivedamongus,“showinghimselflikeamaninappearance.”…Whatanindescribablesacrament!Towhathigherendwashumanityabletoberaisedthanthatahumanbeing,consistingofarationalsoulandhumanflesh,ahumanbeing,exposedtomortalaccidents,dangers,andneeds,inbrief,atrueandperfectman,inexplicablyassumedintoonepersonwiththeWord,theSonofGod,consubstantialwiththeFatherandco-eternalwithHim.TowhathigherendwashumanityabletoberaisedthanthatthisperfectmanwouldjointwonaturesinHimselfbyawondrousunionoftotallydisparateelements?18

Ofcourse,theRenaissancewritersquotedclassicalwriters(moreRomansthanGreeks)togarnishtheirtreatisesonman.ButtheycouldnotanddidnotderivetheirhighviewofmanfromtheGreco-Romanworldview.ItwastheBible’svisionofwhatmanwascreatedtobe,andsavedtobecome,thatbecame

thecommonsenseviewintheWest.ItwasthisbiblicalviewthatinspiredRuthtotrytosaveSheela.Ourneighborsdidnotunderstandher

compassionateimpulsebecausethreethousandyearsofHinduism,twenty-sixhundredyearsofBuddhism,athousandyearsofIslam,andacenturyofsecularismhadcollectivelyfailedtogivethemaconvincingbasisforrecognizingandaffirmingtheuniquevalueofahumanbeing.

THESECULARMYTH

Myprofessorswereconfusedaboutthephilosophicalfoundationsofhumandignitybecausethemythhasimpressivepedigree.RomanticpoetPercyByssheShelley(1792–1822)wasanearlycreatorofthemyth.Inhispoem“PrometheusUnbound”hestealsaconceptthatcameoutofbiblicaltheologyandplantsitinaGreeklegend.IntheoriginallegendPrometheusisboundupbecausehestealsfirefromthetempleofZeusandgivesittothehopelesslybackwardhumans.ShelleyretainedmanyelementsoftheGreekmythbutgaveitasecularflavor.HisPrometheussymbolizesman.Thesupremegod,calledbyZeus’sRomannameJupiter,isaphantomtyrant,acreationofthehumanmindandwill.ThisphantomGodabusesthepowerthatPrometheushasgivenhimandbeginstooppressman.Godbecomesthesourceofevil.InmostGreekversionsofthemyth,PrometheusisreleasedbyappeasingZeus.ButShelley’sPrometheusisnotsopliable.HedoesnotcurryJupiter’sfavor.Prometheus(“man”)isliberatedbyrebellingagainstJupiterandtakinghispowersbackfromhisimaginarygod.Shelley’sefforttoliberatemanfromGodattractedmanybecausesomuchoftheChurchwas,aswe

havenoted,corruptandoppressive.SophisticatedmythmakerslikeMarx,Nietzsche,andFreudgarnishedhisidea.Theyignoredthefactsofintellectualhistoryoutlinedabove,lookedatthefailuresofthechurch,andassumedthatGodwasthesourceofhumanenslavement.TheypopularizedthemyththatfreedommeantdeliveringourselvesfromaGodwhoexistsonlyinhumanimagination.MarxistandNietzscheanfascistmyths,however,turnedouttobefarmoredestructivethanthemyththatruledSheela’sculture.Thesemythscausedthemurderofmorethanonehundredmillionpeopleduringthetwentiethcentury.19Freud’smyth,asweshallseelaterinthisbook,isnowtakingitstollontheWest.Itistruethatmanhasinventedmanygods.ButMosesdidnotinventGodforpsychologicalcomfort.He

wasgrazingsheepwhenhesawtheburningbush.Hedidn’tbelievethevoicethatwassendinghimtoEgypt,whereFreud’sancestorswerecryingouttoGodbecauseoftheirslavemasters.20MosesandtheHebrewswereveryreluctantbelievers.TheywereforcedtobelievebecauseGodrevealedhimselfintheirhistory.Freud’smythisnotaboutGod’sdeath.Itisaboutman’sdeath.IfthereisnoGod,thenmancannotbeaspiritualentity.Hecannotbeasoul,animaginative,creativeselfthattranscendsnatureandactsuponnatureasafirstcause.DuringthetwentiethcenturyAmericanculturewasstillshapedbytheBible.Therefore,itescapedthe

consequencesofthisdehumanizingsecularmyth.Butaswenotedinthefirstchapter,thepostmodernWesthas moved close to the Buddha’s denial of the soul’s existence. Its practical consequences wereexpressedbyayounggrungerocker:“IbelongtotheBlankGeneration.Ihavenobeliefs.Ibelongtonocommunity, tradition,oranything like that. I’mlost in thisvastvastworld. Ibelongnowhere. Ihaveabsolutelynoidentity.”21KurtCobainwasalogicalproductofthisnihilism.IfmanisnotmadeinGod’simage,apersoncannot

be anything special: humanism is arrogance: animalism is a truer philosophy. As Ingrid Newkirk,cofounderofthePeoplefortheEthicalTreatmentofAnimals,putit,“Aratisapigisadogisaboy.”22Inother words, Sheela’s parents were right: a baby is not innately better and should have no higherprivilegesthananunwanteddog,pig,orrat.TheMarxistswhoruledtheSovietUnionwereaheadof thephilosophicalcurve.Theyconsidered

individuality tobeabourgeoisconcept,amanifestationof themiddle-classdesire for independence,

privateproperty,andafreeeconomy.Therefore,likeIslamandHinduism,theysetouttoliquidateallexpressionsofindividualidentityinfavorofacollective,communalconsciousness.Post-MarxistslikeRolandBarthes,MichelFoucault,andJacquesDerridagofurther.Theyholdthatourlivesareculturallydetermined:ourlanguageshapesourthoughts,andindividualityorsubject-hoodisanillusion.Evenif“singularity” is undeniable, individuality is an artificial construct “constituted by a web of forces ofwhichconsciousnessistheeffectratherthanthepointoforigin.”23Thepostmoderndeconstructionof individuality implies thatShakespearewasnotacreativegenius

withaunifiedpersonality.Hisworkswereanexpressionnotofhiscreativity,butofhisculture.Somepostmodernists, who think that individuality has to be an illusion, seek to annihilate their sense ofindividuality throughdrugs,Tantricsex,yoga,andmeditation.LikeHindugurus,someof themtry tomergetheirindividualconsciousnessintoauniversal,impersonalnothingness.TheCopenhagenZoovividlyexpressedthesecularviewofhumanitywhenitexhibitedacagedpairof

Homosapiens in 1996.24 Zookeeper information official Peter Vestergaard explained that the exhibitsoughttoforcevisitorstoconfronttheiroriginsandacceptthat“weareallprimates.”Thevisitorssawtheotherhairyprimatesstaringattheceiling,swingingfrombars,andpickinglicefromeachothers’pelts.However,thecagedHomosapiens(HenrikLehmannandMaleneBotoft)workedonamotorcycle,checkedtheire-mail,sentandreceivedfaxes,readbooks,andadjustedtheirairconditioner.Thezoohadaproblem.Existinglaws,shapedbythe“outdated”biblicalworldview,demandedthatit

recognizethefundamentalrightsofHomosapiens,includingtheirrighttofreedom.Ithadtogivethemthefreedomtoleavetheircagetosatisfy“urges”foranightattheoperaoracandlelightdinner.Thezooalsohadtopaythemtostayinacage.Thesehumansrefusedtoheedthecallofnatureinpublicandobjectedto displaying “intimate behavior,” claiming “that’s not interesting.” After a few weeks, both Homosapiensdepartedthemonkeyhouse.Theexperimentviolatedtheirdignityashumanbeings.

REBELLIOUSCOMPASSION

WhatRuthdidforSheelawasnotunique.TravelingthroughAfricaandAsia,andespeciallyseeingthework of Mother Teresa, the late British journalist Malcolm Muggeridge noted that faith in Christ’sincarnationhadinspiredmanyChristianstogiveuptheircomfortsandrisktheirlivestoservethepoorestofthepoor.EventhoughMuggeridgewasanatheistatthetime,heobservedthatatheistichumanismhadnotinspiredanyonetodevotehisorherlifetoservethedyingdestituteofCalcutta.The West became a humane civilization because it was founded on the precepts of a teacher who

insistedthatmanwasvaluable.JesuschallengedtheinhumanityofhisintellectualandreligiousculturewhenhedeclaredthattheSabbathwasmadeforman,notmanfortheSabbath.TheWestbecamehumanebecausetheoriginalhumanistsbelievedthatChrist’sincarnationanddeathdefinedwhatahumanbeingis.Butnow,havingrejecteditssoul,theWesthasnooptionbuttoseehumanindividualityanddignityasillusions,muchasSheela’sparentsdid.Equally important is the fact that in rejecting its soul, the West is also rejecting the source of its

uniquelyrationalculture.Letusexaminethatnext.* See http://www.indianchild.com/dowry_in_india.htm. “According to government figures [nationwide] there were a total of 5,377 dowrydeathsin1993.”Suchnumbersareconsideredlow,asmostdeathsarerecordedasaccidentsorsuicides.

ChapterSix

RATIONALITY

WHATMADETHEWESTATHINKINGCIVILIZATION?

Inspired?TheBibleisnotevenintelligent,”wrotethemilitantatheistwriterandpublisherE.Haldeman-Julius (1889–1951). The Bible, he asserted, was illogical and irrational, “full of absurdities andcontradictions.”1Historians,ontheotherhand,telladifferentstory.InTheOxfordHistoryofMedievalEurope,editor

GeorgeHolmeswrote:“TheformsofthoughtandactionwhichwetakeforgrantedinmodernEuropeandAmerica,whichwehaveexportedtoothersubstantialportionsoftheglobe,andfromwhichindeed,wecannot escape, were implanted in the mentalities of our ancestors in the struggles of the medievalcenturies”(whentheBiblewasshapingthethoughtprocessesofChristendom).2LikewiseEdwardGrantpointedoutinGodandReasonintheMiddleAgesthatduringthelatterMiddleAges(AD1050–1500),theBiblecreatedapeculiarreligiousperson,calledtheschoolmanorscholastic.Heusedlogicashisprimarytooltostudydivinity.Noearlierculturehadcreatedsucharationalmanwiththeintellectual“capacityforestablishingthefoundationsofthenation-state,parliaments,democracy,commerce,banking,highereducationandvariousliteraryforms,suchasnovelsandhistory.”3Thescientific, technological,military,andeconomicsuccessof theWestcamefromthefact that it

becameathinkingcivilization.Wasitsrationalityacoincidenceofhistory?OrdidtheBiblepromoterationalitybecauseitinformedtheWestthattheultimaterealitybehindtheuniversewastherationalWord(logos)* of a personal God? It was not, as Indian sages thought, primeval silence, senseless sound(mantra),energy,orimpersonalconsciousness.ManyintheWestfollowedatheistslikeHaldeman-JuliusinrejectingbeliefinarationalCreator.Itdid

notoccurtothemthatrejectingtheBible’sGodmightunderminetheWest’sconfidenceinreason;thatitmight force their universities to conclude that rationality could not be intrinsic to the universe; thatatheismwouldmakereasonachanceproductofblindchemistry;thatlogicwouldbecomeanaccidentalanddispensableproductofWesternculture,losingitsauthoritytosubjectallviewpointsandallculturestoitsrules.Somepeoplethinkthatanaccidentofhistory,theprintingpress,madetheWestrational.It’struethat

the easy availability of books helped to disseminate the ideas generated during the Renaissance,Reformation, and Enlightenment. But if printing was the secret, then Asia should have led Europeanthoughtbycenturies.TheChinesehadinventedtheprintingpresshundredsofyearsearlier.ByAD972,theyhadprinted130,000pagesofthesacredBuddhistwritings,theTripitaka.KoreanprintersinventedmovablemetalfontsatleasttwocenturiesbeforetheGermanGutenbergreinventedtheminAD1450.Whydidn’tprintingreformChinaorKorea?

SALVATIONBYROTATION

Printingandbooksdidn’treformmycontinentbecauseourreligiousphilosophiesunderminedreason.By

AD823,Chinesemonasterieshadsomanybooksthattheyinventedrotatingbookcases.By836,atleastonemonasteryatSuchowineasternChinahadevenmadeabraketostoptherotation.Inthemiddleofthetwelfthcentury,whensomeEuropeanmonasteriesandcathedralschoolswerebeginningtoblossomintouniversities,aBuddhistmonknamedYehMeng-te(d.1148)traveledthroughthetemplesandmonasteriesineasternChinaandreportedthat“insixorsevenoutoftentemples,onecanhearthesoundofthewheelsoftherevolvingcasesturningdayandnight.”4Werethemonksturningthebookcasesinordertofindandreadbooks?Thatwouldhaveindicatedthat

thesetempleswerecentersof tremendousresearch.ButProfessorLynnWhiteJr.,oneof theworld’sgreatestauthoritiesonmedievalreligiosityandtheriseof technology,explainedthat thesoundof therotatingbookcaseswas“notaresultofscholarlyactivity.”Themonksweremeditatingonthesoundofendlesslyrotatingcasesfilledwithsacredbooks.Theywerenotinterestedinwisdomcontainedinthosebooks.Theysought“salvationbyrotationofsacredwritings”5becausetheydidnotbelieveinwords.Theirgoalwastoreachsilencethroughsound-without-sense(mantra).WhilesomeChristiansdousethenamesofJesusorMaryasmantras,accordingtotheBible,prayeris

arationalconversationwithGod.TalkingtoGodispossibleonlyiftheCreatorisaperson.BecausetheBuddhadeniedtheexistenceofGod,hisfollowersdevelopedspiritualritualsthatinvolvedmindless,mechanical“prayer”:mechanicallyrotatingcylinderspackedwithwrittenprayersandprayerswrittenonflagstoflutterinthewind.

AMECHANICALPATHTOSALVATION

This mechanized piety is now appealing to the postmodern West. Transcendental Meditation (TM), apseudoscientific religious movement, is a good illustration. I became interested in TM because theMaharishiMaheshYogi,agraduateofmyalmamater,AllahabadUniversity,hadstartedit.In1974,thepresidentoftheIndianbranchofthemovementinitiatedmeintothe“mechanicalpathtosalvation”6intheMaharishi’slivingroominRishikesh.Hegavemeamantra,thenameofaminorHindudemigod,andaskedmetorecitethissoundsilentlyfortwentyminutes,twiceaday.WhenIreachedtheadvancedstagesofspiritualdevelopment,hetoldme,Iwouldneedtofastandrecitethemantraforseveralhoursatatime.Iaskedwhatmymantrameant.Hetoldmenottobotherwiththemeaning.Thepointwasnottoknow

truth,hesaid,buttoemptymymindofallrationalthought—to“transcend”thinking.Tothinkistoremainin ignorance, in bondage to rational thought. Meditation is a means of escaping thinking by focusingattentionona“sacred”(meaningless)soundlikeom.Thinkingmustbestoppedandthemindmustbesilencedbecausetherootofexistenceisnotlogos,therationalword,butAvidhya,ignorance.ThisbeliefisbestsummedupintheBuddhistdoctrineofcreationsummarizedinPaticcasamuppadaorthe“ChainofDependentOrigination”:

OutofIgnorancearisesImagination,thenceSelf-consciousness,thenceNameandForm(i.e.,corporal[bodily]existence),thencetheSix Senses [the sixth being Thought], thence Contact, thence Feeling (or Emotion), thence Craving, thence Attachment, thenceBecoming,thenceRebirth,andthenceallthemanifoldillsthatfleshisheirto.7

TheHinduguruswhotaughtmewerebrilliant,butnoneofthemhadbuiltauniversityinsacredplaces

suchasRishikeshandHaridwar.*SwamiDayanandaofHaridwarexplainedthereason:“Weuselogictodestroylogic.”Why?Because“creation,”includingrationality,isaproductofcosmicillusion—maya.MyIndianprofessorswerewellawarethatourphilosophicaltraditiondidnotcultivatetheintellect.

ButtheythoughtthattheWest’sinterestincultivatingrationalitycamefromancientGreece.SixhundredyearsbeforeChrist,beginningwithphilosopherslikeThalesandAnaximander,theGreeks

indeedcultivatedthelifeof themind.Thattraditioncontinuedaslongastheyrespectedlogic.Butit

begantodieoutaftertheydeniedtheexistenceoftranscendentlogosandyieldedtoGnosticeffortstotranscendrationality.ProfessorRaoulMortleyexaminedtheriseandfalloflogosinancientGreece.InhisstudyFromWord

ToSilence,8hepointedoutthattheideaoflogos,ortherationalword,asthecontrollingfeatureoftheuniverseoriginatedinGreecewiththepre-Socraticthinkers.ItendedwiththeclosingoftheAthenianAcademyinAD529.TheGreekshadbecomesuspiciousoflogiccenturiesbeforetheAcademyclosed,however.Theirgreat

rhetoricians,theSophists,usedlogicforpoliticalmanipulation.RhetoricwasimportantinGreekcity-states because democracy depends on persuasion. Parties opposing each other use logic. This madeGreeksthinkthatlogicwasformanipulation,notforknowingtruth.Ifseeminglylogicalargumentscouldbeadvancedtosupportmutuallyexclusiveconclusions,whyshouldanyonetrustlogic?Howcouldweknowthatlogicisintrinsictoreality?ThatsuspicionenabledGreekskepticstoflourishanddemolishtheideaoflogos.9Theskepticswerenotmystics.Buttheycreatedanintellectual“climateinwhichrationalism…[was]

seen as suspect, becoming the object of doubt and dissatisfaction, thus allowing the claim that realknowledgeistobehadindependentlyoftheproceduresofreason.”10Somysticismfollowedontheheelsofskepticism.AsGreekphilosophybecameincreasinglyskepticalofthehumanabilitytoknowtruth,polytheistic

cultsbegantoinfusepeople’sliveswithmyths,superstitions,andritualsinanattempttoprovidesomesortofoverarchingframeworkandmeaningfortheirlives.WithoutarationalGodwhocommunicatestruth,theGreekshadtogiveuptheirconceptoflogosandtheirfaithinreason.WhileGreekskepticsattackedlogos,PhiloofAlexandria(25BC–AD50),aJew,saveditfromgoing

intooblivion.TheJewsare“thepeopleofthebook,”andhisculturepredisposedPhilotodefendtheuseandfunctionoflanguage,thoughhealsoattackedthewaySophistsmisusedlanguage.MortleypointsoutthatforPhilo,

themakingoftheworldmayseemincomprehensible,butitsprinciplesareneverthelesswrittensomewhere:languageisnotabouttobelightlyabandoned,sincetheword/reasonprinciplestandsattheverysourceofthecreatedworld.11

TheHebrewScripturestaughtPhilothatlogos,orwisdom,wasapartofthebeingandnatureofGod.*Therefore,hestruggledtosavetheconceptoflogos.Inordertosaveithehypostatizedit.Tohypostatizeistothinkofaconceptorabstractionashavingreal,objectiveexistence.FortheapostleJohn,logoswasnotanabstractconcept.JohntouchedtheWordinfleshandblood.John

livedwithJesusforthreeyearsandwitnessedincrediblehappenings.HesawJesus’wordbringdeadmenbacktolife.HewasinadrowningboatwhenJesus’wordstilledastorm.HewasnervouswhenJesusaskedthemtofeedfivethousandmenwithfiveloavesandtwofish.Butafterwardhehelpedcollecttwelvebasketsfullofleftoverbread.JohnheardJesusrepeatedlypredicthisowndeathandresurrection,butheneitherunderstoodnorbelievedJesus.ButthenhesawJesusdieonthecross.MeetingtherisenChristconvincedhim,likeothereyewitnesses,thattheCreatorhadindeedcometosavetherepentantsinners.WhatwasJohntomakeofJesus’declaration,“Iamthe…truth”?12HowwashetointerpretJesus’

testimonybeforethejudgewhocrucifiedhim?JesussaidtoPilate,“ForthispurposeIwasbornandforthispurposeIhavecomeintotheworld—tobearwitnesstothetruth.”13John’sexperienceswithJesusdrovehimtoaconclusionthatwasoppositeoftheBuddha’s.Ultimaterealitywasnotsilencebutword—logos.JohnbeganhisGospelwithhisconclusion:“InthebeginningwastheWord[logos],andtheWordwaswithGod,andtheWordwasGod…AndtheWordbecamefleshanddweltamongus,andwe

haveseenhisglory,gloryasoftheonlySonfromtheFather,fullofgraceandtruth.”14IfGodisTruth, ifhecanspeaktousinrationallyunderstandablewords, thenhumanrationalityis

reallysignificant.ThewaytoknowthetruthistocultivateourmindsandmeditateonGod’sWord.ThesetheologicalassumptionsconstitutedtheDNAofwhatwecallWesterncivilization.RaoulMortleywrote,

WithJohn’streatmentthereisanattempttomakelogosentertimeandspace:thehypostatizedlogosisnowattachedtoanhistoricalfigure,andtheJohannineidentificationoflogoswithJesusconstitutesoneofthefoundationsofPatristicphilosophy[oftheearlychurchfathers].15

John’s assertion that in Christ’s incarnation the eternal Word had entered time and history made themodernWestverydifferentfrommyculture.Indianphilosophy,likeGreekPlatonismandGnosticism,issuspiciousoftime.Thisisbecauseourincarnationsaremythical,nothistorical.*Infact,Indianthinkerswentbeyondviewingtimeascyclicaltodeclareitasmaya(illusion).Bycontrast,theJewsbelievedthattimeisreal.TheyhadseenGodactinhistory.OnedaytheywereslavesinEgypt;thenextdaytheywerefree,ontheothersideoftheRedSea,nolongertrappedbyPharaoh’sarmy.Theythereforehadalinearviewofhistory—verydifferentfromallothercultures.ForJews,historymovesforward.John’sexperiencereinforcedthisviewofhistory.The“goodnews”wasthattheeternalWord,logos,

hadenteredhumanhistory.Thismadetherealityoftime“ahallmarkofChristianorthodoxy.”16UltimatelyitsavedtheWestfromGnosticism.

THELIGHTOFLOGICINTHEDARKAGES

St.Augustine(AD354–430)andBoethius(ca.AD480–524)werethetwochurchfatherswhoplayedthemostimportantrolesinpreservinglogicandlayingtheintellectualfoundationsofmedievalandmodernWestern civilization. Augustine exercised a formidable influence throughout the Middle Ages, theRenaissance,andtheReformation.Boethius’srolewassignificantintheearlyMiddleAgesanduntilthemid-twelfthcentury.Skeptics,mystics,andnihilistsquestionedwhetherthehumanselfexisted,whetherourmindsmeant

anything,orwhetherourwillswerereallyfree.Augustinesavedtheintellectfromtheskeptics’attackbecauseheunderstoodthebiblicalrevelationtoimplythatourmindswereGod’smostpreciousgifttous.TheyenabledustobeGod’sownimage,toknowhim,andtolovehim.Augustinewrote,

FarbeitfromustosupposethatGodabhorsinusthat[theintellect]byvirtueofwhichHehasmadeussuperiortootheranimals.Farbeit,Isay,thatweshouldbelieveinsuchawayastoexcludethenecessityeitherofacceptingorrequiringreason;sincewecouldnotevenbelieveunlesswepossessedrationalsouls.17

Inhisauthoritativestudy,GodandReasonintheMiddleAges,historianEdwardGrantstated,“The

rolethatthesetwoscholarsassignedtoreasonandrationalitysignificantlyinfluencedthewayreasonwasviewedandusedintheMiddleAges.”18Grantdocumentedhowthebiblicalworldview,notthesecularstate,madetheWestathinkingcivilization:

Itisanironyofmedievalhistorythatreasonandrationalityhad,forbetterorworse,virtuallyeverythingtodowithreligion,theology,andtheChurch,andrelativelylittletodowiththestate.ThiswastrueintheearlyMiddleAgespriortotheemergenceofuniversitiesaround1200,butbecameevenmorepronouncedaftertheirformation.19

ThechurchsustainedtheideaofthelogosbecausetheBible’sframeworkprovidedarationalefor

believinginreason.Thelogoshadenteredhistoryandbecomeflesh.Sincerationalitywasapartofthe

nature of God that had been given to us, philosophy or rational understanding and systematization ofrevealedtruth(whichthenincludedscience)wasnotsomethingtobefearedorshunned.While the Asian monks were altering their rational consciousness through meditation, drugs, and

physicalandsexualexercises,Augustine’sworkssettherigoroustoneofphilosophicalstudiesthathascharacterizedthelastfifteenhundredyearsofreligiouseducationinChristendom.

Soimpressedwas[Augustine]withthe“validrulesoflogic”thathecouldnotbelievetheywereformulatedbyhumanbeings.“Theyare,”heboldlyproclaimed,“inscribedinthepermanentanddivinelyinstitutedrationalityoftheuniverse.”20

BoethiusbuiltonAugustine’sworldview,whichwasrobustenoughtointegrateGreekinsightsinto

biblicalrevelation.Hetranslatedphilosophical,medical,andscientifictextsfromGreekintoLatinandalsowrotephilosophicalandtheologicaltreatises.Heinspiredmedievalscholarstocontinuedevelopingtheirphilosophicaltraditionuntilthe“dawn”oftheearlyRenaissanceandReformation.Grantwrote,

Boethius guaranteed that logic, the most visible symbol of reason and rationality, remained alive at the lowest ebb of Europeancivilization,betweenthefifthandtenthcenturies.When, inthecourseof theeleventhcentury, thenewEuropewasemergingandEuropeanscholars,forreasonswemayneverconfidentlyknow,werearousedtoaninterestinlogicandreason,thelegacyofBoethius’“oldlogic”wasonhandtomaketherevivalpossible,andwasperhapseveninstrumentalingeneratingit.21

WhatsavedrationalityaftertheGreeksgaveitup?ItwastheBible’steachingthateternallifewasto

knowGodandJesusChrist.22ThatJesuswassomeoneinwhomwerehiddenthetreasuresofwisdomandknowledge.AnentiresectionoftheBibleiscalledWisdomLiterature*andteachesthatwisdomandunderstandingarefarmoreimportantthanrubiesanddiamonds.JohnofDamascus(ca.AD676–749)wasonechurchfatherwhotaughtthattobespiritualwastocultivatethelifeofthemind.ThelastoftheGreekchurchfathers,hecontinuedthetraditionofBoethiusandAugustine.John’sworkTheFountofKnowledgereinforcedthebeliefthatorthodox,biblicalChristianitywasa

religionofrationality.InthePhilosophicalChaptersofthiswork,theverytitlesofthesixty-eightchaptersrevealaheavyemphasisonlogic.Muchofthatemphasisisderivedfrompre-Christianwriters.Thisissignificantbecausebyhistime,theGreekshadrejectedrationalitycompletelyinfavorofmysticism.JohnofDamascuswasabletopaytributetoreasonandrationalitybecauseofhisfaithintheBible.Thisishowheopenedhisfirsttreatise:“Nothingismoreestimablethanknowledge,forknowledgeisthelightoftherationalsoul.Theopposite,whichisignorance,isdarkness.Justastheabsenceoflightisdarkness,soistheabsenceofknowledgeadarknessofreason.Now,ignoranceispropertoirrationalbeings,whileknowledgeispropertothosewhoarerational.”23

MASSAWAKENINGOFTHEEUROPEANMIND

The middle of the second millennium witnessed many attempts to bring moral and social reform toEurope.Butsuchattemptsweremotivatedbyoneoftwooppositeattitudes.Onewasintoleranceandpersecution,theattempttosuppressdissentandbringaboutconformitybyforce.Thiswasmanifested,forexample, in theSpanishInquisitionandtheexpulsionofJewsandMuslims.Theotherwastheopen,questioningattitudeofreformerslikeWycliffe,Tyndale,Luther,andCalvin,whosoughttomaketheBibleavailabletopeoplesotheycoulddiscoverthetruthforthemselves.Macro-historianandeconomistDavidLandesexplainedtheBible’srole:

Dissentandheresywereanoldstory,butin1517,whenMartinLuthernailedhis“Ninety-fiveTheses”tothechurchdoorinWittenberg,he struck the first blow for secession. Christendom was headed for breakup. In the decades that followed, Protestants in severalcountries (the English Lollards had preceded them) translated the Bible into the vernacular. People read and started thinking forthemselves.24

WhydidunleashingtheBibleintovernacularlanguagesresultinamassawakeningoftheEuropean

mind? Until the sixteenth century, the Germans, Swiss, and English were just as superstitious as theSpanish.Andunfortunatelythechurchwasoftenamajorsourceofthisirrationality.Abishopwouldplacea“toothofthebabyJesus”ora“pieceofthecrossofChrist”inaglasscaseinacathedral,anddevoutChristianswouldgoonpilgrimagestoseetherelic.Theywouldmakeadonationinthehopeofreceivingremissionforsomeoftheirsins.Thedonationmightshortentheirtimeinpurgatoryby,say,336years,26days,and6hours.SuperstitionslikethesewerethefirsttodisappearaspeoplebegantoreadtheBible.Once English bishops realized that it had become impossible to prevent people from buying and

readingtheBible,KingHenryVIIIallowedtheEnglishBibletobeplacedineveryparish.Thetimeswereturbulent,astheReformationwasragingincontinentalEurope.InfluencedbyWilliamTyndale’sbookTheObedienceofaChristianMan (1528), Henry thought that reading the Bible would makeEnglishmendocileandobedient.Hewasfuriouswhenjusttheoppositehappened.Almost every alehouse and tavern turned into a debating society.25 People started questioning and

judgingeverytraditionofthechurchandeverydecisionoftheking.PeoplecouldquestionreligiousandpoliticalauthoritiesbecausetheynowhadintheirhandstheveryWordofGod.TheWordofGodwasanauthorityhigherthantheauthorityofthechurchandthestatecombined.UpsetthattheBiblehadcreatedsuchintellectualferment,Henrytried toput thegeniebackinto thebottle.HedraftedasecondedictwithdrawinghispermissiontoreadtheEnglishBible.Butitwastoolate;themasseshadbeenaroused.Thesecondedictwasneverissued,althoughHenry’sdocumentstillexistsinhisownhandwriting.Alehouses became debating clubs as people interpreted and applied the Bible differently to the

intellectualandsocialissuesoftheday.Somewerecontenttoletthechurchsettletheirdisputes.OthersrealizedthattheonlywaytodeterminewhichinterpretationwascorrectwastoreadtheBiblewithvalidrulesofinterpretation.Thiswasabottom-upintellectualrevolution.ItinfusedthemindsofallliterateEnglishmen—notjustthoseintheuniversities—withanewlogicalbent.Ittooknotimeforthatrevolutiontospreadintootheraspectsofpeople’slives.Untilthattime,Englandwasonlyamiddlingpower.ButoncetheEnglishpeoplebeganusinglogictointerprettheBible,theyacquiredaskillthatpropelledtheirnationtotheforefrontofworldpolitics,economics,andthought.Somepeoplethinkthatchancehappeningsofhistory,suchasguns,germs,andsteel,werethekeysto

theWest’sabilitytocolonizetheworld.26TheirmaterialisticperspectiveoverlooksthefactthatCatholicnationslikePortugal,Spain,andFranceweretheleadingnavalpowersduringthesixteenthcentury.WhatenabledmuchsmallerProtestantnationssuchasEnglandandHollandtobeattheirCatholicrivals?CedricB.Cowing,professoremeritusofhistoryinHawaii,studiedtheimpactoftheeighteenth-century

biblical“Revival”inEnglandandthe“GreatAwakening”or“NewLight”inAmerica.Heconcludedthatthe primary factor that propelled the English-speaking nations ahead of their Catholic rivals was thepeculiarrelationshipbetweenbiblicalspiritualityandintellectualawakening.Thefact thatGodhadcommunicatedhisWordmotivatedpeople to learnreadingandwriting.The

Bible was already a library—a collection of sixty-six books. On top of that, John Wesley urged hisconverts to study fifty selected titles. In America the awakening had begun under Jonathan Edwards,America’sfirstphilosopher.Theattempt tomasterhisbooks, therecommendedbooks,and theBiblemotivatedbelieverstodevelopanumberoflearningskills.Cowingsaidthatasaresultofthesespiritualrevivals,

inBritain,manyoftheconvertsofWhitefieldandWesleyweremotivatedtolearntoread[theBible]andwrite,butinthenortherncolonies [e.g., North America] where people were already literate—except the Indians and Negroes—the energies and disciplinereleasedbytheNewLightweretheinspirationneededtomasterabstractreligiousmaterial.Incomprehendingtheologicalaswellasdevotionalprintedmatter,theemotions[stirredupbyRevivalists]aidedthedevelopmentofcognitiveskills.Thenovicesinfocusingonthe stages of conversion were studying a process analogous to the still mysterious secular sequence of gathering data, altering

hypotheses,andsomehowrelyinguponintuitiontosynthesizetheconclusions.Thistypeofthinkingwouldhaveamoregeneralutilitylater. The Great Awakening induced a grass roots intellectualism that ultimately spread in every direction, from belief in God’ssovereigntyallthewaytoagnosticism.27

Thesespiritualrevivals ledtothemassawakeningofreason.Peoplewereseekingandreceivingthepromised“Spiritofwisdomandunderstanding,theSpiritofcounselandmight,theSpiritofknowledgeandthefearoftheLord”28—whichis“thebeginningofknowledge.”29Byproducinganunprecedentedhungerfortheknowledgeoftruth,biblicalrevivalsliftedProtestantcountriesoutofthepovertythatwaschronicworldwide.Inhisinquiryintothewealthofthenations,theScottisheconomistAdamSmithnotedthathardwork

alonedoesnotresultinprosperity.Primitivetribesthathuntandgatherthewholeday,sevendaysaweek,workhard.Thedifferencebetweenpovertyandprosperityisdeterminedbyhowmuch“skill,dexterity,andjudgment”(inshort,thought)isputintowork.Lettingone’sminddirectone’smusclesinvolvesmanythings.Technologyisoneofthem.Therationaluseandorganizationoftime,labor,availableresources,andcapitalisequallyimportant.

Rational relationships among all the participants in an economic system and the rational sharing ofresources,costs,andprofitsmakevitaldifferencesintheeconomiclifeofapeople.Theseeconomicrelationships are expressed in rational principles, laws, contracts, taxes, and legal and financialinstitutions.Someoftheprinciplesandlawsofarationalsocietyarewrittendown.Othersaremoralvirtuestakenforgrantedbecausetheyareapartofthecultureanditsreligiousethos.ItwastheBiblethatshapedtheethosofthecountriesthatbecameProtestantandservedastheengineforglobaldevelopment.Allhumanbeingshavethesamebasicintelligence,butnotallreligiousculturesproduceeconomically

rationalcitizens.Scholarsinmanynon-Protestantnationshaverecognizedthisfact.Take,forexample,Argentina. Until the nineteenth century, all of Argentinean manufacturing—spinning, weaving, potting,soapmaking,cookingoilproduction,candlemaking—wasdomesticindustry,carriedoutbywomen.“InamachosocietywithvaluesinheritedfromSpain,adulthoodbroughtmales‘completeindependenceandidleness.’”30Somefarsightedcitizensrealizedthattheeconomictransformationoftheirsocietyrequiredthat they recruitnew immigrants, especially from ProtestantEurope, whom theArgentineans saw “asbettereducated,harderworking,politicallymature.”31Thisrecruiting,however,wasunacceptabletotheRomanCatholicleadership.ThatoppositionledArgentinepoliticalphilosopher,patriot,anddiplomatJuanBautistaAlberdi(1810–84)tourgehiscountrytorespectwhattheBiblehaddoneinProtestantcountries:

SpanishAmerica,limitedtoCatholicismtotheexclusionofanyotherreligion,resemblesasolitaryandsilentconventofnuns….ToexcludedifferentreligionsinSouthAmericaistoexcludetheEnglish,theGermans,theSwiss,theNorthAmericans,whichistosaytheverypeoplethiscontinentmostneeds.Tobringthemwithouttheirreligionistobringthemwithouttheagentthatmakesthemwhattheyare.32

AREWEWITNESSINGTHECLOSINGOFTHEAMERICANMIND?

ProfessorAllanBloom’sthesis(1987)regardingtheclosingoftheAmericanmindtothingssuchastruth,thingsthatreallymatter,isimportant.HelamentstheWest’slossofconfidenceandinitsownintellectualheritageofGreatBooks.ThisconfidencewasbornduringtheMiddleAges.FollowingAugustineandJohn of Damascus, Christians studied the Bible and other great books because they believed that theCreatorhimselfhadcommunicatedhisthoughtsinabookandfashionedthehumanmindinhisownimage.Godgavethegiftofreasontoallhumanbeingssothatwemightlovehim,knowalltruth,andunderstand

andmanagehiscreation.DevoutChristianscultivatedtheirmindsbycopying,preserving,andstudyinggreatbooksbecause theybelievedthat tobeGod-likemeant todevelopthe intellect, togrowinourknowledgeofalltruth—whicheverindividualorculturediscoversitfirst.ThatiswhatmadetheWestathinkingcivilization.AmputationofitssoulcannotbutleadtotheclosingoftheAmericanmind.WhileAllanBloomlamentedtheiconsofmindlessmusic,suchasMickJagger,themostunabashed

promoterofanti-intellectualismcametoAmericafromIndia—OshoRajneesh.Hewasoneofthefirstpublicintellectualstotakepostmodernthoughtfromtheivorytowertothemiddleclass.HepromotedCobain’snihilismandtheBuddhistideathatwordshadnothingtodowithtruth;thattheultimaterealitywasSilence,Shoonyta,Void,orNothingness.PriortobecomingaguruandcomingtoAmerica,RajneeshtaughtphilosophyintheIndianuniversityat

Sagar,inthestateofMadhyaPradesh.Herealizedthatrationalismparadedinsecularuniversitieswasanemperorwithoutclothes.His intellectual“honesty”appealedto theuniversitygraduatesdescribedbyAllanBloom.Rajneesh’swritingswerepepperedwithphrasessuchas,“Intellectisthechiefvillain”and“Donotuseyourmind.”Themeditationshetaughtweretechniquesof“killingthemind.”Heinsisted,“Religionisaprocesstogobeyondthinking,toachieveapointinyourmindwherethereisnothinkingatall.”33Afamoussigninhisashramread:“Pleasekeepyourshoesandyourmindoutsidethetemple.”Rajneeshhasbeenforgotten,buthisideasarewinningtheWest.Todate,DanBrown’snovelTheDaVinciCodeisthemostinfluentialexpositionofRajneesh’steachingthattheknowledgeoftruthcomes,notviawordsandmind,butthroughsexritualizedwithGnosticmumbo-jumbo.ButthedeclineoftheWestanditsconfidenceinreasonisasubjectforanotherbook.Atthestartofthis

chapter,IalludedtoEdwardGrant’sassertionthatbiblicalrationalitywasthekeytothedevelopmentoftheWest’sfreedomandprosperity.Allowmetoillustratethepointbyfocusingononeofitsfruits—technology.*Greeksusedthetermlogostorefertothespokenwordaswellastotheunspokenword,stillinthemind–reason.Theyalsousedthetermtomean “the rational principle that governs all things.” Some Jews, like Philo of Alexandria, used the term to refer to God. In the NewTestament,theapostleJohnusedlogostorefertothesecondpersonoftheTriuneGod,priortohisincarnationasJesus.John’suseoflogosbecamethekeytotheWestbecomingathinkingcivilization.Thetermisdiscussedlaterinthischapter.*TheMaharishiInternational“University”wasfoundedintheWestandstartedfunctioninginIndiasomeyearslater.*TheCreationaccountinGenesis1,forexample,portraysGodasthinking,speaking,creating,naming,andjudging.Itrepeatedlysays,“AndGodsaid,‘Lettherebe…’”*WesternizedHindusrecognizethevalueoftime.Therefore,somearetryingtofindhistoricaltruthbehindreligiousmyths.ThiswilldefinitelyhelpourunderstandingofIndianhistoryandprehistory.Honesthistorywillhelpchangethenonhistoricalnatureofourcivilization.However,academicmythmakinginthenameofpoliticalcorrectness,however,willfurtherdamageus.*BooksofJob,Psalms,Proverbs,Ecclesiastes,andtheSongofSolomon.

ChapterSeven

TECHNOLOGY

WHYDIDMONKSDEVELOPIT?

Inthesummerof2000,IwasinvitedtotheUniversityoftheNationsinJinja,Uganda,toteachacourseontheFoundationsforCommunityDevelopment.Unfamiliarwiththearea,IassumedthatIwasgoingtoseeadesert.ButevenbeforetheplanelandedinthecityofEntebbe,Iwaspleasantlysurprisedtoseelushgreenery.Enroutetotheuniversitycampus,Iobservedhundredsofwomenandchildrenhaulingwaterontheir

heads.Thesightremindedmeofhome,althoughinruralIndiaitiswomenandgirls,notboys,whocarrywater.Indiancitieshavewaterpipescomingintohomes,butmanyofthemdonotactuallybringwater.Rapid,unplannedurbanization,coupledwithcorruption,hasmadeitdifficultforcitiestokeepupwiththegrowingdemandforwater.Itiscommontoseepeoplelinedupatcommunitytapswaitingtofilltheirvesselswithwaterandcarrythemtotheirhomes.*MyfirstmorninginJinja,IlearnedthatIwasstayingontheshoresofLakeVictoria,atthesourceofthe

legendaryWhiteNileRiver.IhadnoideathatLakeVictoriawastheworld’ssecondlargestfreshwaterlake.NorhadIimaginedtheNiletobesogiganticatitsorigin.ItexitsLakeVictoriawithsuchforcethattheBritishbuiltahydroelectricdamatJinja,whichgeneratessomuchelectricitythatsomeofitissoldtoKenya.Theabundanceofwaterandelectricitymademewonderwhywomenwerecarryingwaterontheir

heads,morningandevening,365daysayear.Weretheyunawareofpumpingtechnology?Thatcouldn’tbethecase,becauseacrossthefieldsfrommyresidencewasanindustrialcomplexownedbyIndians.IcouldhearthepumpthatsuppliedwatertotheirtwothousandhomesdirectlyfromLakeVictoria.Bythefourthdayitbecamedifficultformetorespectapracticethatforcedwomentoengageinthis

drudgerywhilemanymensatandplayedcards.Usingtheirmusclestobringwaterwasnotmerelyawasteofbillionsofhoursoflabor;italsomeantthatfamiliesdidnotbatheenough,flushenough,orwashenough. Drinking from insufficiently washed glasses, and eating inadequately washed food fromunacceptablywasheddisheswithimproperlywashedhandsorcutleryaresurewaystogetinfectedwitheasilyavoidablediseases.Itmeanswastingfurthertimeandresourcestocureillnesses.Itcondemnsawholepeopletoworkatafractionoftheirenergy.Itproducesstuntedwomenandchildrenwhohavelesstimethanotherstoplay,learn,andbecreative.Itepitomizestheoppressiveheadshipofhusbandsandthecallousruleofacommunity.Thatexperienceraisedthequestions:Whydon’tAmericanwomenhaulwaterontheirheads?Whydid

Westernpeoplebeginusingtheirmindstodowhatmostculturesusedtheirmusclestodo?Technologyis“magicofthemind.”Whenyouusethemind—thatis,technology—waterbringsitselfto

you—waterproduceselectricityandelectricitypumpswaterrightintoyourhome.Byusingtheirmindsinsteadoftheirmuscles,ahandfulofpeoplecansupplymorewatertoamillionhomesthancanamillionpeoplehaulingitontheirheads.NeitherAfricanorIndialacksingeniousminds.TheEgyptianslivingalongtheNilebuiltthepyramids

whilebarbariansinhabitedWesternEurope.Theproblemwasthattheengineerswhomadepyramidstohonorthebonesofkingsandqueensdidnotbothermakingwheelbarrowsfortheirslaves.Somehusbandswhocarefortheirwivesdo,infact,makewheelbarrowsinUganda.Ittakesonlyafewsticksandawheel.MyexperienceinJinjarefutedtheproverbthat“necessityisthemotherofinvention.”Everyfamily

needswater.Whatifawifecannotbringenoughwater?Inthatcasemostculturestooksimplerroutesthaninventingtechnology.Menforcedtheirchildrentowork,tookadditionalwives,orboughtslaves.TheHinduspersuadedacastethatGodcreatedthemtobewaterhaulersandtheir“salvation”layinfulfillingtheirdharma—doingtheircastedutygenerationaftergeneration.Itisfashionabletorejecttechnology.MahatmaGandhiopposedit,andthecityofJinjahaserecteda

hugestatuetohonorhim.Theproblemisthattheculturesthatrejecttechnologyendupforcinghumanbeingstogettheirwater,grindtheirgrain,andeventocleantheir“drylatrines.”AldousHuxleywasadistantdevoteeofMahatmaGandhi,apromoterofBuddhism,andapioneerof

contemporaryenvironmentalism.HeblamedChristianityfortheecologicalcrisisofthemodernworld.Hebelievedthat technologydevelopedintheWestbecause,accordingtotheBible,Godcommandedhumanbeingstoestablishtheirdominionasstewardsovertheearth.Huxley’sviewpointbegantobetakenseriouslyafterLynnWhiteJr.,aprofessorofhistoryatStanford,

Princeton,andtheUniversityofCalifornia–LosAngeles,endorseditinanarticleinSciencemagazine.1White’shistoricalresearchwasimpeccable.Hisinterpretationofthesociologyoftechnologyseemsright.HemakesavalidcriticismthatWesterncivilization,includingthechurch,hasoftenaffirmedman’svalueattheexpenseofnature’svalue.Nevertheless, it is usually the case that pollution kills far more people in technologically less

advanced,nonbiblical*cultures.Culturesthatcan’tpumpwaterintotheirhomescan’tflushtheirtoilets.InIndia,thelackofrunningwaterledtoashamefulHindupracticethatembarrassedMahatmaGandhi(butisstillpracticed):forcinguntouchablestocarryothers’excretainacontainerontheirheads.CriticswhoblameaJudeo-Christianworldviewforthetechnology-createdecologicalproblemssuch

asglobalwarmingmaybewrongaboutscience,butatleasttheyarerightabouthistory.Technologyisafruitofabiblicalworldview.TheBibleitselfdefendsatleastoneaspectoftheircritiqueoftechnology:thatthehumanheartandmindhavebeencorruptedbysin.Therefore,someofourchoicesaredestructive.Evenchoicesmadeingoodfaithcanturnouttobeharmfultonatureandourselves.Thefactofsinmakeshumanauthoritydangerousinallspheres:familial,social, intellectual,political, religious,aswellasenvironmental. Yet, you can’t have creativity without authority. Every creator has authority over hiscreation.Everycreatorcandelegatethatauthoritytohischildren—eveniftheyhavethepotentialtoabuseit.Thereisnodoubtthehumancreativitythatresultsintechnologyhasbeenabused.Inmostcultures,the

rulingelitepatronizedtechnologyifitmadethemstrongerthantheirenemies,internalorexternal.Theywelcomedtechnologyforwar,pleasure,prestigiousmonuments,andtheoppressionoftheirpeople.Onlyoneculturehaspromotedtechnologyforgeneralwelfareandforliberatingandempoweringtheweak—slaves,women,children,thehandicapped,andthepoor.ProfessorLynnWhiteJr.thoroughlydocumentedthathumanizingtechnologycameoutofbiblicaltheology:

ThehumanitariantechnologythatourmodernworldhasinheritedfromtheMiddleAgeswasnotrootedineconomicnecessity;forthisnecessityisinherentineverysociety,yethasfoundinventiveexpressiononlyintheOccident[thatis,theWest],nurturedintheactivistorvoluntaristtraditionofWesterntheology.Itisideaswhichmakenecessityconscious.Thelabor-savingpower-machinesofthelaterMiddleAgeswereproducedbytheimplicittheologicalassumptionoftheinfiniteworthofeventhemostdegradedhumanpersonality,byaninstinctiverepugnancetowardssubjectinganymantoamonotonousdrudgerywhichseemslessthanhumaninthatitrequirestheexerciseneitherofintelligencenorofchoice.2

Professor David Landes studied clock making in China and concluded that the development oftechnologyisnotmerelyamatterofingenuity.TheChinesehadtechnicalability,yetclockmakingdidnotbecomeanindustry,nordiditbecomeasourceofcontinuingandgrowingtechnologicalinnovationsinChinaasitdidinEurope.Why?TheChinesewerekeenneithertoknowtimenortoorganizetheirlivesaccordingly.3The development of the watermill illustrates that culture is as important for the development of

technologyasingenuityis.In1935,MarcBlochpublishedhisfindingthatthewatermillhadbeeninventedatleastacenturybeforeChrist.4Later,itsusefulnessforgrindinggrainwasknowninAfghanistan,ontheborderofgeographicIndia.Almosteveryoneneededtogrindgrain,yettheuseofthewatermillneverspreadinHindu,Buddhist,or(later)Islamiccultures.*ChristianmonksinEuropewerethefirsttobeginthewidespreaduseofthewatermillforgrindingandfordevelopingpowermachinery.

WHATACCELERATEDWESTERNTECHNOLOGICALPROGRESSINTHEWESTERNMIDDLEAGES?

Theabovequestionwasthetopicofa1961OxfordSymposiumonScientificChange,spearheadedbyAlistairCrombie.ThebestanswerwasgivenbyMarburghistorianErnstBenz,whopublishedaseminalessay in 1964, “Fondamenti Christiani della Tecnica Occidentale.” It demonstrated that “Christianbeliefsprovidedtherationale,andfaiththemotiveenergyforwesterntechnology.”5Benzhadstudiedandexperienced Buddhism in Japan. The antitechnological impulses in Zen led him to explore whetherEurope’stechnologicaladvancesweresomehowrootedinChristianbeliefsandattitudes.Hisresearchled him to the conclusion that the biblical worldview was indeed the key to understanding Westerntechnology.ChristendompioneeredtechnologicalcreativitybecausetheBiblepresentedaGodwhowasaCreator,

neitheradreamernoradancer,asIndiansagesbelieved.Godwasthearchitectofthecosmos.Heshapedmanoutofclayasapotterdoes,makingmaninhisowncreativeimageandcommandinghimtoruletheworldcreatively.Jesus Christ’s incarnation in a physical body and his bodily resurrection instilled into Christian

philosopherstheuniqueideathatmatterwascreatedforaspiritualpurpose.Adamwascreatedtotakecareoftheearth,nottodespiseitortrytotranscendit.6BenzrealizedthattheJudeo-Christianviewofrealityanddestinyproducedandnurturedtechnologyinfourways:First,theBibleemphasizedintelligentcraftsmanshipintheworld’sdesign.Second,theBiblesuggestedthathumanbeingsparticipateindivineworkmanshipbybeinggoodartisansthemselves.Third,theBibletaughtthatwefollowdivineexamplewhenweusethephysicaluniverseforrighteousends.Andfourth,theBiblechallengedtheWesttousetimewisely,becauseeachmomentisavaluable,one-timeopportunity.7Manyscholarshavereinforced,expanded,andqualifiedthisthesis.Forexample,RobertForbesof

LeydenandSamuelSamburskyofJerusalempointedoutasearlyas1956thattechnologyarosebecauseChristianitydestroyedclassicalanimism.Thebiblicalcosmoswas“enchanted.”TheBibleaffirmedtheexistenceofspirits,demons,andangels.It“secularized”thephysicaluniverse,however,byteachingthathumanbeings,notspirits,weremeanttoruleovernature.ThatworldviewmadeitpossiblefortheWesttousenaturerationallyforhumanends—thoughitistruethatmanyintheWesthaveabusedtechnologytoexploitnatureinunjustorirresponsibleways.Biblical cosmology was not the only force behind the rise of the West’s humanitarian technology.

Christiancompassionwasanequallyimportantfactor.Christianspiritualityhasemphasizedcompassion,service,andliberationfarmorethantheneedtoestablishhumandominionovercreation.ScholarshavequalifiedBenz’sthesisbecausenotallversionsofChristianitydevelopedequallystrong

traditionsoftechnology.TechnologyfoundamorefertilesoilintheWesternLatinchurchthaninEastern

Greek Christianity. Some have suggested that the difference was that the Greek church tended to seehumanity’s problem as ignorance and therefore saw salvation as illumination. This view encouragedGreeksaintstobecomecontemplatives.Westernsaints,bycontrast,tendedtobeactivists,becausetheysawsinasvice—rebellion.Thebiblicalideaofnewbirthincludedareorientationofthewilltodogoodworks.Thismoralactivismcombinedwithastrongbiblicalworkethicprovedconducivetopromotinghumanizingandliberatingtechnology.ThisbecameespeciallytrueaftertheProtestantreformerstookthebiblicalworldviewoutofthecloistertothepeople.Thequestion is,whydidChristianmonksdevelop technology? Why didn’t Buddhist monks? The

Buddhistmonksdidnotlackcreativegenius.InAfghanistantheyexcelledinarchitecturalfeats,suchasconstructingtheenormousstatuesoftheBuddhaatBamiyan,whichlastedforamillenniumbeforetheTalibandestroyedthem.TheBuddhistandChristianmonkssharedoneproblemincommon:theycouldnottakewivestogrind

theirgrain.AcrucialdifferencebetweenthetwowasthatBuddhismrequiredmonkstobegfortheirfood,whereastheBiblerequiredChristianstoworkfortheirs.TheapostlePaulwrotethatapersonwhodidnotworkshouldnoteat.8St.Benedict,whomadetheEuropeanmonasticmovementdifferentfromotherreligioustraditions,paraphrasedPaul,saying,“Idlenessisanenemyofthesoul.”9ToworkwastobelikeGod,becausetheBible’sGodwasaworker.Heworkedforsixdaystocreatetheworldandrestedontheseventh.10Benedict’sfollowersacceptedthedictumthatworkisprayer,buttheyalsofeltatension.Theyhad

cometothemonasterytopray,nottogrindgrain.ThetheologicalfactorthatresolvedtheirtensionanddrovetechnologywasthattheBibledistinguished“work”from“toil.”ToworkwastobelikeGod,buttoil was a curse on human sin.11 Toil was mindless, repetitive, dehumanizing labor. This distinctionenabledChristianmonks*torealizethathumanbeingsshouldnothavetodowhatwind,water,orhorsescando.Peoplemustdowhatotherspeciesandnaturalforcescannotdo—usecreativereasontoliberatehumanbeingsfromthecurseoftoil.LynnWhiteJr.summedupthebiblicalrootsofWesterntechnology:

Thestudyofmedievaltechnologyisthereforefarmorethananaspectofeconomichistory:itrevealsachapterintheconquestoffreedom.Morethanthat,itisapartofthehistoryofreligion…Ithasoftenbeenremarkedthatthe[monasteriesin]LatinMiddleAgesfirstdiscoveredthedignityandspiritualvalueoflabor—thattolaboristopray.ButtheMiddleAgeswentfurther:theygraduallyandveryslowlybegantoexplorethepracticalimplicationsofanessentiallyChristianparadox:thatjustastheHeavenlyJerusalemcontainsnotemple,sothegoaloflaboristoendlabor.12

“APPLIEDSCIENCE”OR“APPLIEDTHEOLOGY”?

Thepopularmisconceptionthat“technologyisappliedscience”keepspeoplefromunderstandingthat“humanizing” technology is a peculiar product of the Bible. White wrote, “It is astonishing to ourtwentiethcenturymindshowlittleimpactGalileoandhiscirclehaduponthetechnologyeitheroftheirowntimeorofthefollowingtwohundredyears.Untiltheseventeenthcentury,EuropeantechnologyhadbeenbothmoresophisticatedthanEuropeanscienceandlittlerelatedtothatscience.”13HistorianJacquesBarzuntellsusthatscienceandtechnologymergedonlyinAD1890,afterchemist

Sir Alfred Mond persuaded a group of businessmen to take advantage of what we now call R&D(Research and Development). Only then did industry begin hiring scientists to find processes thatengineerscouldembodyinmachinesandappliances.14Western technology is not a result of the eighteenth-century Industrial Revolution. The Industrial

Revolution was a result of the Western “invention of invention.” Also, Western technology predatesWesternsciencebyatleastfivecenturies.TheWestbecametheglobaltechnologicalleaderlongbeforethebirthofmodernscience:

ThechiefgloryofthelaterMiddleAgeswasnotitscathedralsoritsepicsoritsscholasticism:itwasthebuildingforthefirsttimeinhistoryofacomplexcivilizationwhichrestednotonthebacksofsweatingslavesorcooliesbutprimarilyonnonhumanpower.15

ThecollapseoftheRomanEmpireledtothe“DarkAges,”withpoliticaldisintegration,economic

depression, thedebasementofreligion,andamarkeddeclineinliterary,philosophical,andscientificpursuits.Itwasinthemidstofthatverydarkness,however,thatChristianitybeganrevitalizingthehumanspirit. One expression of this renewal was the origin of liberating technology. Its uninterrupteddevelopment has been traced from the eighth (possibly sixth) century to our day.16 By contrast, thephilosophicalfoundationsofmodernsciencewerelaidonlyinthefourteenthcentury,andsciencetookoffonlyinthesixteenth.Technologicalinnovations,asweshallsee,tookplaceinChristianmonasteries,whereassciencegrewinChristianuniversities.ItistruethattheChristianWestuseditstechnologicalsuperioritytocolonizemuchoftheworld,and

thattechnologyhascreatedseriousdangersfortheenvironmentaswellasforhumanity.Nevertheless,itisideologicalblindnesstoignorethefactthattechnologyfunctioningwithinabiblicalframeworkhasbeenoneofthechiefinstrumentsofhumanemancipation.Letmeillustratethepointwithafewexamples.

THEFORE-AND-AFTRIG(LATEENSAIL)The“DarkAges”weredarkfromthepointofviewofliterature.Therefore,wehavelittleinformation

onwhoinventedthefore-and-aftrigtosailagainstthewind.Somehistoriansthinkthetechniquemayhave originated as early as the second century after Christ. What we do know, however, is that thisinventioneliminatedthegalleyandslavelabor.WealsoknowthattheBiblewastheintellectualandmoralforcethatmadeslaveryabhorrent.Isitacoincidencethattheoldestpictureofthelateensailisfoundinapre-IslamicchurchatAl-AujainsouthernPalestine?17Admittedly,nofirmhistoricalconclusionscanbedrawnfromapaintinginachurch.Wedoknow,

however, that in the succeeding centuries the Bible played the most important role in promotingtechnology that liberatedslaves.Wealsoknowthat,back then,secularismdidnotexist.Andneitherpaganphilosophersnortemplespromotedorcelebratedtechnologythatemancipatedslaves.TheBible,incontrast,begantobewrittenbecauseGodheardthecriesofHebrewslaves.RodneyStarkexplainsthatmostoftheancientphilosopherssupportedslaverybecausetheyhad“noconceptofsintoputteethintheirjudgmentsandnorevelationfromwhichtobegin”critiquingslavery.Starkcontinues:

Althoughithasbeenfashionabletodenyit,antislaverydoctrinesbegantoappearinChristiantheologysoonafterthedeclineofRomeandwereaccompaniedbytheeventualdisappearanceofslaveryinallbutthefringesofChristianEurope.18

Thereweregoodeconomicreasonsforusingthelateensail.Itincreasedtheaveragespeedoftheship,

loweredthecosts,reducedthesizeofthecrew,andenabledshipstogofarther.AsmyexperienceinJinjademonstrates,however,ourmaterialisticageoverestimatesthepowerofeconomics.Aculturewillnotinvestinwheelbarrowsorpumpsifitsdecisionmakersfeelthatthereisasurplusoftimeandwoman-ormanpower.Onlyasocietywithatheologicalclimatethatvalueshumandignitybeginsusingtechnologyasaforceforhumanemancipationandempowerment.

THEWHEELEDPLOWANDTHEHORSETheChinesewereusingironplowswhileEuropeanswerestillusingwoodenones.Yettheycontinued

using iron long after Europe had graduated to steel. Clearly, something was renewing the spirit ofEuropeanpeasantsevenwhile itspost-Roman literaryculturewasstillmired in theDarkAges.Thepeasants’ humble wheeled plow generated the economic strength that helped save Europe fromcolonizationbyIslam.

DuringtheMiddleAges,IslamicforceswereabletoinvadeEuropealmostatwill.MuslimsconqueredsouthernSpainandPortugalandinvadedFranceintheeighthcentury.Intheninthcentury,theyconqueredSicilyandinvadedItaly,sackingOstiaandRomein846.By1237,theyhadbeguntoconquerRussia.Constantinoplewascapturedin1453,andthebattlesof1526inHungaryand1529inViennasuggestedthatitwasmerelyamatteroftimebeforemullahs,caliphs,andsheikhswouldrulecitieslikeRome,Vienna,andFlorence.Equipped with a coulter, a horizontal share, and a moldboard, Europe’s new plow increased

productivitybytillingrich,heavy,andbadlydrainedriver-bottomsoil.Thisheavyplowneededasmanyaseightpairsofoxen,andconsequently,itbirthedcooperativefarming,whicheventuallyledtothemanorhouse.Bytheeighthcentury,thenewplowmadethethree-fieldsystemofcultivatingpossible,leadingtobetterrotationofcropandfallow,lesslabor,andmoreproduce.Improvedproductivitymadeitpossibletoreplaceoxenwithcostlierbutmorepowerfulhorses.Thatledtostillgreaterproductivity.Thenetresultwasthegradualeliminationofstarvation,theimprovedhealthofthepeople,andastrengtheningoftheeconomicfoundationsoftheWestrelativetoIslam.Environmentalists condemn the heavy plow for “violently” breaking and turning over hard soil.

Economistscredititforsavinglaborbymakingcrossplowingunnecessary.Socialhistoriansrecognizethat the development and cultural acceptance of the new plow required a mind-set that saw humandominionovertheearthasadivinemandate.Therefore,allthree—environmentalists(suchasHuxley),economists (such as Landes), and historians (such as White)—agree that the Bible created Europe’stheological outlook, which justified human management of the environment and began revitalizingEurope’seconomyduringtheDarkAges.ThehorseisnotnativetoEurope,sohistorianspuzzleoverwhyitwasEuropeanpeasantswhofirst

multipliedthelifeandstrengthoftheirhorseswiththreesimpletechnologies:thehorseshoe,thehorsecollar,andthetandemharness.Thesethreeinventionssolvedthreelong-standingproblems.First,brokenhooves soon rendered horses useless. Second, the yoke harness system, quite suitable for oxen, wasextremelyinefficientforfasterhorses.Theyoke’sfrontstrappressedonahorse’swindpipe.Theharderahorsepulled,thecloseritcametostrangulation.Thatsystemalsomadeitimpossibletoharnessonehorseinfrontofanother.Third,sinceanimalpowerwastechnicallyunavailableinsufficientquantitiestopullgreatweights,allculturesreliedongangsofslavesforlargeprojects.To solve the first problem, Europeans invented the horseshoe, which protected a horse’s feet and

greatlylengtheneditsworkinglife.Tosolvethesecondproblem,theyinventedthemodernharness,whichrestsonahorse’sshoulders,permittingittobreathefreelyanduseitsfullstrengthtopullthreetofourtimesmoreweightthanbefore.Tosolvethethirdproblem,theyattachedlateraltracestothenewharness.This made it possible to attach several horses behind each other, greatly increasing the horsepoweravailableandmakingslavelaborunnecessary.Afterthestirrup(datingmuchearlier)wasaddedtothesethreeinventions,thehorseturnedEuropeanarmiesintoadreadfulforce.DespitebeingintheDarkAges,EuropepushedtechnologymuchfurtherthantheGreco-Romancivilizationeverdid.From our point of view, the important fact is that the oldest information regarding these important

technicaldevelopmentscomesfromapaintingintheCathedralofBayeux,France,whichdepictsahorsebeingusedforagriculture.AChristianartistcouldcelebratetheseinnovationsinachurchbecausetheyreflectedbiblicalvalues.

THEWATERMILL,THEWINDMILL,ANDTHECRANKThe modern world uses many technologies to generate energy from water, wind, coal, petroleum,

naturalgas,biogas,andthesun,andtoutilizegeothermal,tidal,andnuclearpower.Thefirstofthese,thewater-driven mill, seems to have appeared simultaneously during the first century BC in Jutland(Denmark),northernAnatolia(Turkey),andChina.ThewindmillapparentlydevelopedinTibettorotate

Buddhistprayercylindersaroundaverticalaxle,perhapsasearlyasthesixthcentury.Fromthere,thistechnologyspreadtoChinawhereitwasusedforpumpingandhaulingcanalboatsover lockslides.UsingwindmillsforgrindinggrainwastriedineasternIranandAfghanistaninthetenthcentury.The idea of harnessing water and wind energy for human emancipation from the drudgery of toil,

however,didnottakeholdineithertheIslamicortheBuddhistworld.ButtheWestwasdifferent.Thefirstrecordeduseofthewatermillcamefromasixth-centuryabbot,GregoryofTours(538–94).ThisGallic bishop and historian was deeply troubled by the sight of his monks grinding grain in querns(primitivegrainmills).Soheencouragedtheinvention,orreinvention,ofthewatermilltorelievethemofthisodiousduty.Followinghim,Europeanmonasteriesandcommunitiesbeganusingthewatermillinthetenthandeleventhcenturiesandthewindmillinthetwelfthcenturytopowerlabor-savingdevices.OneimportantforcebehindthisdevelopmentwasSt.BernardofClairvaux(1090–1153),whobrought

theOrderoftheKnightsTemplarundertheRuleofSt.Benedict.In1136,AbbotArnoldofBonnevalchronicled the life of St. Bernard, describing the rebuilding of Clairvaux. Interestingly, he made nomentionoftheChurchbutgaveadelightedaccountoftheabbey’swater-poweredmachinesformilling,tanning,blacksmithing,andotherindustries.AnindependentdescriptionofthemonasticlifeatClairvauxinthatperiodenthusiasticallydescribestheautomaticfloursifterattachedtotheflourmill.Thenarrator“thanksGodthatsuchmachinescanalleviatetheoppressivelaborsofbothmanandbeast”19andgivesalonglistoftasksthatcanbeaccomplishedbywaterpower.Watermillsandwindmillsbecameusefultopowermachinerybytheinventionofthecrank,themost

importantinventionafterthewheel.Byunitingrotaryandreciprocalmotions,thecrankenabledmachinestoreplacethehumanarm.Beginningperhapswithhand-quernsandrotarygrindstones,thecrankbecamealmostascommonasthewheel,liberatinghumanbeingsformorecreativetasks.Atthepeakoftheirculturaldevelopment,theancientGreeksandRomansknewnothingaboutthecrank.TheyusedwomenandslavesforchoresthatpowermachinerybegantodoforChristianmonksandpeasantsintheeighthcenturyAD.

THEWHEELBARROWANDTHEFLYWHEELThe wheelbarrow may have been a Chinese invention. If so, why did China’s Hindu and Muslim

neighborsfailtoseeitssocioeconomicpotential,cuttinginhalfthenumberoflaborersneededforhaulingsmallloadsbysubstitutingawheelforthefrontmanofthehand–barrow?ItwasnotuntilthelaterpartofthethirteenthcenturythattheuseofthewheelbarrowbecamepopularinWesternEurope.Eversincethen,wheelshavebeendisplacingmeneverywhere,exceptincultureswheresomehumanbeings—women,children,slaves,servants,minorities,andlowercastes—aredeemedlesshumanthanothers.Whereas the wheelbarrow replaces a laborer, the flywheel multiplies the power of a laborer. A

flywheelstoresrotationalmomentum,whichmakesbetteruseoffluctuatingenergy.Itmakesitpossible,forexample,topedalabicycleonceandgetthewheeltorotatemanytimes.Thisingeniousinventionfirstappeared in a book called Dediversisartibus (1122–23) by Theophilus, a technologically orientedtheologianandBenedictinemonk.Hisbookwasmotivatedbyhisfaith.ItcodifiestheskillsneededtoembellishagreatchurchforthegloryofGod.TheseskillsthatbecamethekeytotheeconomicsuccessoftheWestcameoutofreligiousmotivations.Somepeopleexpresstheiroppositiontomachinesforpragmaticreasons;forexample,newmachines

produceunforeseenconsequences,suchascausingunemploymentordamagetonature.However,oftenthesuspicionalsohasaphilosophicaldimension.Whatistheultimatemeaningoftechnology(ormusicorart)?Innovatingforeconomicreasonsisarelativelynewphenomenon.Mostinventorsremainpooreventoday.Inventingnewtechnologiesrequirestremendousdedication,intenselabor,andmanyfailuresandfrustrations.Whybother?TheBiblesolvedthisproblemforTheophilus.HedidwithtechnologywhatAugustinedidwithmusic.Technologywasnotjustusefulforhim;itwasalsomeaningful.Itspurposewas

to use human creativity for the glory of God and for the service of the weak. The absence of thatworldviewpreventedIndianmonksfromdevelopingtechnology.

THEPIPEORGANANDTHEMECHANICALCLOCKThemechanicalclockprovidedthenurseryofmechanicalengineeringintheWest.Nonbiblicalcultures

didnotcreatemechanicalclockspartlybecause theydidnotvalue timein thesamewayasculturesshapedbytheBibledid.Beforetheclock’sappearance,thepipeorganwasthemostcomplexmachineinuse,dedicatedtothegloryofGod.HistoriansfinditinterestingthatduringthetimetheLatinchurchwasembracingtechnologytoaidspirituality,theGreekchurchforbadetheuseofmusicinitsliturgy.ItislikelyIslaminfluencedthelattermorethantheBible.It insistedthat theunaccompaniedhumanvoicealonecouldworthilypraiseGod.Thistheologicaldisputemaysoundtrivial,buthistoriansthinkthatsuchlittlechoicesplayedkeyroles in theWest’s technologicaldevelopmentand therelativestagnationofEasternChristiancivilizations.An interesting fact about the clock is that the core idea seems to have come from the Indian

mathematicianBhaskaracharya’sviewofperpetualmotiondescribedinSiddhantaShiromani(AD1150).Muslimscholarsdiscussedhiscompellingthesisforfivedecadesafterhim,andthenEurope’sintellectualleadership discussed it for an additional fifty years. Finally, in his influential work De UniversoCreaturarum,WilliamofAuvergne,bishopofParisfrom1228–49,putforwardthesuggestiontomakeaclockbyputtingtheseabstractmathematicalnotionstoapracticaluse.Whywouldareligiousleadertakesuchakeeninterestindevelopinganinstrumentasmundaneasthe

clock? In his fascinating study Revolution inTime, David Landes argues that clocks were inventedbecause monks needed them. We have already seen that Cistercian monasteries, such as the one inClairvaux,weregiganticeconomicenterprises,at thecuttingedgeoftechnologicalinnovation.Monksjoinedmonasteries,however,primarilytopray.Onefactorthatdrovethemtothemonasterywastheworldlinessintheestablishedchurch.Themonks

gatheredforcommunalprayersseventimesaday,includingbeforesunriseandaftersunset,whenthesundialwasoflittleuse.Communalprayerrequiredeveryonetoknowandkeepthesametime.Hencetheclockbecameakeyinstrument.Timemanagementwasapracticalaswellasareligiousnecessity.Practically,themonksneededtoworkandalsotosavetimetopray.Religiously,theyneededtowork

asabody,supplyingoneanotherwithwhatwasneededatagiventime.Theywerealsorequiredtofollowthedivinepatternoffinishingtheirworkontimeandrestingondaysmandatedforrest.TheBible-shaped culture made time management an aspect of establishing human dominion over the physicaluniversebecausetheBiblesawtimeasapartofphysicalreality.Bycontrast,inIndianculture,timewasperceivedeitherasaneternalbutterriblegod(Kal)orasapartofthecosmicillusion(maya).20Like Europe, my country had religious communes and genius inventors. Why, then, did we fail to

developclocksoranindigenoustraditionofmechanicalengineering?Whatwelackedwasthebiblicalworldview.Wedidnotseetheuniverseasanintelligentcreation.Wesawiteitherasdivineorasadream,butnotasarealcreativeproductofintellect,will,andwork.Becauseofthisworldview,ourmonksdidnotspendintellectualenergytomasterandmanagetime.Theyspenttheiryearsfindingwaystoescapetheendlesswheeloftime(Samsara)throughmind-emptyingmeditation.Theirgoalwastoescapework,not tomakeiteasier.Theydidnotneedclocksbecausetheywereseekingescapefromsocialobligations; they were not seeking salvation from the curse of toil through communally synchronizedeconomicenterprise.

EYEGLASSESEyeglassesturnedclockmakingandrepairingintoarevolution,speedingupmechanicalengineering.

Eyeglasses were invented in the 1280s near Pisa or Lucca. Our first information about the invention

comesfromasermononrepentancepreachedatSantaMariaNovellainFlorenceonFebruary23,1306,by Dominican Fra Giordano of Pisa. As in the case of clocks, the monks were the main patrons ofeyeglasses.Theyneededthemtostudy,especiallytostudytheBible.AninterestingaspectofGiordano’ssermon is that it describes not only the invention of eyeglasses but also the recent invention of theinventionitself.EyeglassespracticallydoubledtheproductivelifeofWesternscholarsandcraftsmen.Becauseofeyeglasses,ChristianmonksintheWestwereabletospendtheirmatureyearsporingoverandimprovingtextsandtechnologies,givingbirthtothemovementwecalltheRenaissance.Theoppositehappenedinmypartoftheworld.Ourmonksdidnotdeveloptechnicalaidstoimprove

theireyesight.Theytookprideinclosingevenperfectlygoodeyesinmeditation.Eventodayouryogis“fly” to distant galaxies in “out-of-body” experiences. The Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, the promoter ofTranscendental Meditation in the West, popularized one of the yogic techniques of levitation throughmeditationincorporateAmerica.Whywouldanyoneinventairplanesifhecanflyusingdaydreams?ChristianmonksweredifferentbecausetheBiblegavethemadifferentworldview.EilmerofWiltshire

Abbey in Malmesbury, England, was a Benedictine monk who may have been the first European toattempttoflyintheeleventhcentury.Thislearnedmonk*madeaglider,flewfromaneighty-foot-hightowerforsixhundredfeet,fell,brokehislegs,andblameditonhisfaultydesign—hehadneglectedtomakeatail!EventuallytheWestsucceededindevelopingthetechnologytofly,whileourmonkshavecontinuedtotrytomeditate,levitate,andfly.

GODMADEADAMALIVINGSOUL

Technologyisintegratingmindandmuscles.Itisbreathingreflection(soul)intophysicalaction(matter).That,accordingtotheBible,istheessenceofman.AdambecamealivingsoulwhenGodbreathedhisSpiritintoamaterialbody.21Technologydevelopswhenpeoplewhousetheirmusclesarealsoallowedtodeveloptheirmindsandhavetheleisuretousethem.ThismeansthatBenz’sthesishastobequalified.Medieval technology did not develop in the ivory towers of universities, but in the humdrum of theeconomiclifeofChristianmonasteries.**Why?Monasticism(asdistinctfromearlierasceticism)beganasareactionagainstthecorruptinginfluenceof

Greco-RomanthoughtintheChristianchurch,especiallytheattitudethatmanualworkwas“lowclass.”Althoughthiscorruptioneventuallycreptintothemonasteries,too,initiallythemonasticmovementwasaquestforauthentic,biblicalChristianity.ItfollowedtheBibleinexaltingthevirtueofmanuallabor,aswellasincultivatingaloveforGod’sWord.TheGreco-Romanworldwasnotaloneinlookingdownuponmanualwork.Thatattitudewascommon

throughout the ancient world. The God who liberated the Jews worked for six days and commandedhuman beings to do the same. That is the opposite of Hindu tradition, which conceives of God as ameditatororYogeshwar(“godofYoga”).ItisvirtuallyimpossibletofindaBrahminguruintraditionalIndiawhoresemblestheapostlePaul—arabbiwhomadetentsforaliving.22Brahminssaidthatmanualworkwasthedutyoflowercastes,aresultofbadkarmafromtheirpreviousbirths.MahatmaGandhiwasthefirstIndianleaderwhousedaspinningwheeltotrytoimportthePaulineworkethicintoIndia:“Nowork,nofood.”23TheGermanmonkwhosebiblicaloutlookeffectivelyfreedChristendomfromthedichotomyofhand

andheadwasTheophilus—askilledmetallurgist,ageneralcraftsman,astylishwriter,animbleexegeteofScriptures,andanup-to-datetheologian.His1122–23work,Dediversisartibus,whichexplainstheflywheel,isthefirstmajordocumentonthehistoryoftechnology.Priortohim,craftsmeninmostculturesdidnotknowhowtowritebecausenoneweretrainedasscholars.Thosewhowrotewerenotinterestedintechnicalissues.

ThechiefconcernofTheophilus’sbookistheplaceoftechnologyinthespirituallifeofamonk.HecaredonlyforthepraiseofGodandnothingabouttheworldbeyondthecloister.Atfirstthisisolationfromthe“secular”worldseemsoddforamanwithsuchpracticalgifts,untilonerealizesthatitwasthisveryisolationfromtheworldthatenabledhimtobecomemorebiblicalandlessworldly—thatis,lessinfluenced by the antilabor, antitechnological snobbishness of classical Greco-Roman Europe and thecorruptedLatinchurch.ApassionforthegloryofGodkepttechnologyfrombecominganidol,afalseanddestructivegod.TheRenaissance’sreturntoclassicalGreco-Romanliteraturehelpedtocreateaculturalclimatethat

delayed the development of Western technology. For until the eighteenth century, Western universitiestaught theology, philosophy, law, medicine, and mathematics (science), but not technology. TheintellectualfoundationsforWesterntechnologythathadbeenlaidinthemonasteriesbymonkssuchasHugh of Saint Victor in Paris (1096–1141) continued to influence culture outside the university. Acontemporary of Theophilus, Hugh was a noted French philosopher and theologian. In the 1120s, hepreparedDidascalicon,aneducationalguidefornovices.Itwasthefirstbookevertoteachmechanicalartsinformaleducation.Hughbelievedthat,accordingtotheBible,humanbeingshavethreebasicdefects:inMind—therefore

wemustlearntruththroughastudyoftheologyandphilosophy;inVirtue—thereforenovicesmustbetaughtethics;andinBody—thereforethosewhoenterthemonasterymuststudytechnologytosupplementtheirphysicalweaknesses.HughofSt.Victorwasstudiedforthreecenturies.ThatenabledtheWesttodevelopbiblicalculturalvaluesdramaticallydifferentfromtheworld-viewspromotedbyGreco-Romanliterature,Hinduism,andBuddhism.Ifmoderntechnologywasaforceforhumanization,thenwhydosomepostmoderncriticscondemn

technologyasadehumanizingforce?Duringthepreviousmillennium,biblicalChristianityreplacedapagan world ruled by spirits, with a “secular” world stewarded by human ingenuity and technology.Today, many in the post-Christian West view machines as evil spirits. Hollywood, for example, isproducingawholegenreofmoviesinspiredbytheideathatthehumanproblemisnotaconflictbetweengoodandevil,butbetweenhumanityandmachines.Among themostpopularofsuchmoviesare theMatrixtrilogy,theTerminatorseries,andseveralepisodesofStarTrek.FilmssuchasCrouchingTiger,HiddenDragonexaltthemagicofBuddhistmeditationratherthantechnologicalinnovation.Theyignorethefactthatthehistoricallyprovenwonderofthemindistechnology,notmeditationthatemptiesone’smind.Tryingtoimpressmewiththefact thatherespectedIndia,myhost inJinjatookmetotheGandhi

MemorialonthebanksoftheNile.TheindustrialcompanythatpumpedwaterandanIndianbankinthecityhadpaidforthemonument.MyhostaskedwhatIthoughtofMahatmaGandhi.IpolitelycommentedthatJinjaseemedtobefollowingMahatmaGandhi’santitechnologystance,butitwouldbebetterofffollowingtheIndianindustrialistandthebanker.Gandhi’sideathattechnologywasevilandthatasimple,naturallifewasmorallysuperiorcamefrom

BritishidealistslikeJohnRuskin.SensitivepeoplelikehimhadbecomecriticalofEngland’sIndustrialRevolution because of the exploitation, oppression, and other evils associated with its “dark satanicmills.”MahatmaGandhibrought thisoppositiontotechnologytoIndia.Fortunately,Gandhi’syoungerfollowerPanditJawaharlalNehru,whoalsostudiedinEnglandandbecameIndia’sfirstprimeminister,knewthatnonindustrialsocietiescanbejustaswickedastheirindustrialcounterparts.Evilisinourhearts,notintechnology.Nehru also knew that England’s Christian conscience had struggled to minimize the evils of the

IndustrialRevolution.Itturnedindustryintoablessingratherthanacurse.NehruledIndiaawayfromGandhi’semphasisonhandloomstomechanizationandindustrialization.*In2003,theIndiangovernmentapprovedamannedmissiontothemoon.Wiseorunwise,successfulordisastrous,themissionwillbea

symbolic climax of a national decision to overturn Gandhi’s rejection of technology. But without themoralandsocialvaluesoftheBible,itcouldbecomeanexerciseinbuildingaTajMahalinouterspace.

LESSONSFROMTHETAJMAHAL

JustasthepyramidssymbolizethegloryofEgypt,theTajMahalinAgraepitomizespremodernIndia’sfinest achievement. No photograph can convey its grandeur. One has to see it to experience itsmagnificence.TheMogulemperorShahJahanstartedbuildingtheTajMahalin1631.ThesameyearaBritishtravelernamedPeterMundytraveledfromSurat(northofBombay)toAgra(southofDelhi),adistance of 1,083 kilometers, to see the emperor. His eyewitness accounts are among our importantsourcesofinformationontheconstructionoftheTajMahal:

FromSurattothisplaceallthehighwaywasstowedwithdeadpeople,ournosesneverfreefromthestinkofthem…womenwereseentoroasttheirchildren…amanorawomannosoonerdeadbuttheywerecutinpiecestobeeaten.24

Themonsoonhadfailed*andpeoplehadnothingtoeat.WhywasIndianagriculturesodependentonrains?NorthernIndiahasmanyperennialriversfedbyHimalayanglaciers.Couldn’tthepeoplewhobuilttheTajMahalbuilddamsandcanalsforpeasants?Whydidn’tseventeenth-centuryIndiastorefoodinwarehousesasabufferfordroughtyears?Afterall,almostfourthousandyearspriortoShahJahan,aHebrewslave-turned-administrator,Joseph,builtwarehousesonthebanksoftheriverNiletosurviveaseven-yearfamine.Thepre-AryanIndusValleycivilizationhadaccesstowarehousingtechnologyatleastfifteenhundredyearsbeforeChrist.Moreover,thiswasnotthefirstyearthatthemonsoonhadfailed.Whyweren’tpeopleproducingsurplusandsavingforemergenciessuchastheonetheyfacedinAD1631?Myseventeenth-centuryancestorsdidnotstarvebecausetheywerestupid,lazy,orunproductive.A

peopleneedmorethaningenuitytodeveloptheirlandsandtechnology,toincreaseproductivityandsaveforemergencies.Theyneedwiseleadership,politicalstability, just laws,fair taxation,andeconomicsecurity.ShahJahan’sgrandfatherAkbartriedtogivesomejusticetohissubjectsforafewyears,butbythe1620s,Indiawasbeinggovernedasusual.Taxes(the“king’sshare”)hadrisenfromone-halftotwo-thirdsofone’sproduce.Beyondthis,thetaxcollectorscollectedtheirincomefromthepeasants.Theyhadtoresorttoextortionbecausetheywerenotpaidsalaries.Thepeasantswereleftwithnomorethan18to20percentofwhattheyproduced.Thatwasahugeincentiveagainstbeingcreativeandproductive.Theonlywaytomakemoneywastojointheexploiters.Hindu,Buddhist,andMuslimkingdomsdidnotexisttoservepeople.Thepeopleexistedforthegloryoftheirrulers,notforthegloryofGod.*HistorianStanleyWolpert’sdescriptionofthedailyroutineofsenioradministratorsduringShahJahan’sreignhelpsusunderstandthenatureofnonbiblicalleadership:

Unlessrequiredelsewhereonurgentbusiness,allprincipalmansabdars(administrators)musteredtwicedailybeforetheemperorathisHallofPublicAudience(Diwan-i-Am),whilelesserofficialsstoodsomewhatmoreremote,yetstillwithincallshouldtheybeneeded.Thevirtuesofhumility,obedience,patience,andloyaltywerethusinstilledinallofthemightygeneralsandciviladministrators,atthecostof intellectual initiative, independenceofmind,self-sufficiency, integrity,andcourage.Bulliedandtreatedlikechildrenbytheiremperor,itwashardlysurprisingtofindsuch“nobles”behavinginturnaspetulantpettytyrantstotheirservants,bearers,soldiers,andpeasants.Thewholesystemwasapyramidofpowerdesignedtoperpetuateitsimperialpinnacle,whetherthroughruthlessviolence,extortion,haremintrigue,bribery,orsheer terror.Theformalgardens,marblemausoleums,andPersianminiatureswereasnectarsqueezedfromasubcontinentcrushedintoobedience,milkedofitsrichesbythefew,whohadreasontolyricizeinPersiancoupletscarvedintotheornatewallsofDelhi’sHallofPrivateAudience(Diwan-IKhas),“IftherebeParadiseonearth,ItisHere,ItisHere,ItisHere!”25

Thefamineof1631wasamassivetragedybecauseIndia’sleadershiphadbeenbusyexploitingtheir

subjectstobuildgrandmonumentssuchastheRedFortinDelhi,theTajMahalinAgra,andartifactssuch

asthePeacockThrone*—thankstowhich,itwassaid,theworldhad“runshortofgold.”AsiaandAfricadidnotlackability.Butabilityalonedoesnotproduceliberatingtechnology.Jesus

saidthatpeoplearelikesheep,inneedofgoodshepherds.Withoutshepherds,slaverywillremainthenorm—from the women in Jinja to the untouchables in India. Nonbiblical cultures need more thantechnology;theyneedaphilosophythatvaluespeople.Technologyisindeedsecular:apersonofanyfaithornofaithcandevelopitanduseit.Butsecularismdoesnotliberate,asProfessorStarkhasshowninhisresearchonslaveryanditsabolition:

A virtual Who’s Who of “Enlightenment” figures fully accepted slavery . . . It was not philosophers or secular intellectuals whoassembledthemoralindictmentofslavery,buttheverypeopletheyheldinsuchcontempt:menandwomenhavingintenseChristianfaith,whoopposedslaverybecauseitwassin…

Thelargerpointisthatabolitionists,whetherpopesorevangelists,spokealmostexclusivelyinthelanguageofChristianfaith…

Although many Southern clergy [in America] proposed theological defences of slavery, pro-slavery rhetoric was overwhelminglysecular—referencesweremadeto“liberty”and“states’rights,”notto“sin”or“salvation.”26

Biblicaltheologyabolishedslaverybecauseitconsideredslaverytobesinful.Slaverymeanstoil,andtheBiblesaidthattoilwasaconsequenceofsin.Godlovedsinnersenoughtosendhissontotaketheirsinuponhimself.ThecurseofsinwasnaileduponthecrossofCalvary,preciselytoredeemhumanityfrom this slavery. Hunger and poverty, according to the Bible, are not secular subjects. They areconsequencesofsin.Biblicalsalvation,therefore,includesfreedomfromoppressivepoverty.ThatwasmymessageinJinja.Technology,however,isnotenoughforchallengingacultureofslavery.Thetaskcallsforaheroic

spirit.Therefore,nextweshallexaminehowtheBiblecreatedmodernheroism.*Carryingwaterisnottheonlyunnecessaryandinefficientuseofmanpower.Laborerscarryingbricksandmortarontheirheadstobuildsomeone’sbungalowareacommonsight,whileheavymachinerymaybeemployedafewblocksawaytobuildaskyscraper!*Theuseof“biblical”or“nonbiblicalculture”throughoutthisbookdoesnotrefertoancientIsraeliteculture;rather,itreferstoacultureinformedbyabiblicalworldview.*WhenRuthandImovedintoavillagein1976,wediscoveredthatthewomenwerestillusinggrindingstonestogrindgrain.Oneofourfriends,whomwetrainedasaVillageHealthWorker,becamethefirstpersontoinstallanelectricflourmill.*NotChristianascetics,buttheBenedictinemonkswhotookvowsofpersonalpoverty,yetbelievedthatworkandeconomicproductivitywereadivineobligation.*Somesuggestthathemayhavebecomeamonkafterhisattemptedflight.ForgoodreasonsLynnWhitebelieveshewasalreadyamonk.**DuringtheMiddleAgestheonlyuniversitydepartmenttotakeaninterestinmachineswasthatofmedicalastrology.*Unfortunately,Nehru’ssecularFabiansocialismcreatedproblemsofitsown,holdingIndiabackwhilesmallnationslikeJapan,SouthKorea,andSingaporepressedahead.Nehru’semphasisontechnicaleducationis,however,nowbecomingoneofIndia’sgreatesteconomicassets.*MostoftheIndiansubcontinentgetsitsrainduringthesummermonsoonmonthsfromJunetoSeptember.Someyearsthemonsoonfailstobringenoughprecipitation.*Thesecularideathatindividualscouldexistfortheirowngloryisphilosophicallyunstable.Thenotiondoesnotworkbecauseindividualscanfindmeaningforthemselvesonlybyrelatingthemselvestoauniversal—animals,race,church,state,ideology,nature,orGod.*ThePersianinvader,NadirShah,carriedoffthePeacockThronefromIndiain1739.

PartIV

THEMILLENNIUM’SREVOLUTION

ThenJesustoldhisdisciples,“Ifanyonewouldcomeafterme,lethimdenyhimselfandtakeuphiscrossandfollowme.Forwhoeverwouldsavehislifewillloseit,butwhoeverloseshislife

formysakewillfindit.”—MATTHEW16:24–25

ButfarbeitfrommetoboastexceptinthecrossofourLordJesusChrist,bywhichtheworldhasbeencrucifiedtome,andItotheworld.

—THEAPOSTLEPAUL,GALATIANS6:14

ChapterEight

HEROISM

HOWDIDADEFEATEDMESSIAHCONQUERROME?

Whatdefinesahero?Isaherothemanwhodieswhilesavingpeoplefromaburningbuilding?Orthepersonwhodieswhileblowingupabuildingfilledwithordinarypeople?JonathanSwift(1667–1745)explained,“Whoe’erexcelsinwhatweprize,appearsaheroinoureyes.”1Whatisheroicinagivenculturedependsonwhatisvaluedbythatculture.This chapter will examine how the Bible changed the European idea of a hero during the last

millennium. A thousand years ago, “Christian” Europe’s idea of heroism was expressed in the firstinternationalconflictofthesecondmillennium.ItwasacrusadeinwhichChristiansoldierstriedtopurgethe Muslims from the holy city of Jerusalem.* The last major conflict of the second millennium wasOperation Desert Storm in Kuwait, in which Western soldiers risked their lives to liberate KuwaitiMuslims from Iraqi Muslims. Petroleum was indeed an underlying motivation behind the Americanaction,butthefactremainsthatwhileIraqinvadedKuwaitforoil,AmericadidnotandcouldnotstayinKuwaittolootoil.Howisitthatduringthelastthousandyearstherehasbeensuchaglobalparadigmshiftthattodayfewcanimaginetheworld’ssolesuperpowerelectinganAlexandertheGreattocolonizeothernations?ThatisnottosayAmericanorEuropeanForeignPolicyisnotgovernedbytheirnationalself-interest.

Thequestionis,whydoweexpectanddemand“civilized”nationstosendtheirtroopsonlytoliberatetheoppressed,butnottoexploitthem?Whatchangedus?TheansweristhatweexpectAmericatofollownotAlexander,Augustus,orAdolfHitler,buttheBibleanditsdefinitionofheroism.ItsdefeatedMessiahconqueredtheclassicalandmedievalideasofheroismtocreatethemodernworld,whichvaluesself-sacrificemorehighlythanworldconquestorknightlyprowess.TheoriginalCrusadesweremilitaryexpeditionsundertakenbyEuropeanChristiansbetween1095and

1270 to recover Jerusalem and other sites in the Holy Land from Muslim control. The pope usuallyrequestedthesecampaigns,whichoriginatedinadesiretostopMuslimsfromtakingoverChristianlands.Theyoffered“remissionofsins”(indulgences) toChristianswhowouldfight.TheChurchplayedanimportantroleinthesemilitaryadventuresbecauseatthattimeChristendomwasunitedmorearoundtheChurchthanaroundanempire.OftenthestatefunctionedasthepoliceorthemilitaryarmoftheChurch.NotjusttheCrusadesbutmanypublicinitiatives,aswell,camefromtheChurch,partlybecausemostkingswereweakerthanthepopeandsomeambitiousChurchleaderswantedtoextendtheirpoliticalandreligiouspower.TheChurchhadbusinesspartnerswhosawnewopportunitiesintheCrusades.Oneoftheirmotives

wastokeeptroublesomeEuropean“heroes”—knightsandnoblemen—outofsight.Iftheyweregoingtofightanddie,itwasbettertheydidsoindistantlands.Theretheywouldbeimmortalizedatleastinsongs, if not also in heaven, as guaranteed by some popes. In short, whatever their justification, theCrusadesbecamereligiousbarbarism.Thereissubstanceintheargument,madebyeminentscholarssuchasJacquesEllul(1912–94),thatthe

CrusadesrepresentedtheIslamizationofChristianity.2At thedawnof thesecondmillennium,IslamiccivilizationwassuperiortoEuropeanChristendominmanyways.EuropelearnedmanythingsfromtheIslamicworld,oneofthembeingtheideaofusingtheswordtopromotereligion.TheBiblewouldallowatheologiantomakeacasefor“justwar.”ButnoonecouldlearnfromJesusorhisapostlestheuseoftheswordtocoerceChristianity.*FromtheCrusades,theChristianmillenniummovedtoconquistadors.TheRomanCatholickingsof

Spain,Portugal,andFrancesenttheirsoldiersalongwithprieststoSouthAmericaandtheCaribbeanislandsinsearchofgold.Thepriestswouldplantacrossonthebeach,claimingthelandforChristbeforethesoldierswouldgoin—oftentokill,rape,andplunder.Someofthestoriesarehorrific.A“Christian”soldiersnatchedababyfromhismother’sbreast,dashedhimontherocks,andfedhimtohisdog!3Thenatives were often viewed as subhuman. The Crusades, at least, had some historical, political, andstrategic justification. In contrast, notwithstanding the heroic adventures of men like Columbus, littlebesidesgreeddrovemostoftheconquistadors.On the heels of the conquistadors, the ideology of colonialism began dominating the global scene.

Primacy was usurped by Protestant nations like England, which were empowered by the technology,education, freedom, and science that the Bible had produced. The evil of colonialism came to besymbolizedbythefirstfourteenyearsofBritishruleinBengal,easternIndia,whichweremarkedbycorruptionandadministrativechaos(1757–70).Theirdevastatingimpactonthelocaleconomyhasbeenbestgaugedbythefactthatthefailureofmonsoonrainstofallledtothestarvationofabouttenmillionpeople.LordCurzon,alaterBritishviceroyinIndia,noted,

Throughout the summer of that year [1770] it is on record that the husbandmen sold their cattle; they sold their implements ofagriculture;theysoldtheirsonsanddaughters,tillatlengthnobuyerofchildrencouldbefound;theyatetheleavesoftreesandthegrassofthefield;andwhentheheightofthesummerwasreached,thelivingwerefeedingonthedead.Thestreetsofthecitieswereblockedupwithpromiscuousheapsofthedeadandthedying;eventhedogsandthejackalscouldnotaccomplishtheirrevoltingwork.4

Duringthenineteenthcentury,theBritishevangelicalssucceededinturningtheevilofcolonialisminto

ablessingformycountry.5Therecanbenodispute,however,thatcolonialismitself—onenationrulingoveranothernation*—wasanevil.How can a millennium that began with the Crusades and progressed through conquistadors to

colonialismendwithKuwaitandKosovo—with(ex)ChristiannationssendingtheirarmiestoliberateKuwaitiMuslimsfromIraqiMuslims,andMuslimsinKosovofromOrthodoxChristians?Whyisitthatatthe dawn of the third millennium, any American president—whether admired or hated—cannot eventhink**ofrulingAfghanistan?Theansweris that theBiblereplacedtheclassical ideaof theheroasaworldconquerorandthe

medieval ideaof theheroasacourageousknightwiththeideaofaheroassomeonewhosacrificeshimselfforthegoodofothers.Letmebeginwithapersonalstory.

ADIFFERENTKINDOFHERO

In1982,RuthandIwereleavingonashortsabbaticalforalecture-and-studytourofEurope.Thatverynight,unknowntous,twomenattackedmyfatherandstepmotherintheirfarmhouse,fourmilesfromourfarm.Theybeatupmyparents,tiedmyfathertoachair,rapedtheyoungwomanlivingwiththem,andhelpedthemselvestovaluables.Oneoftherobbersthenpulledoutasharpknifeandstartedtogougeoutmyfather’seyes.HestoppedonlybecausePapapromisedtoemptyouthisbankaccountthenextdayandgivethemhislife’ssavings.My father had taken an early retirement and had come to help us in our rapidly growing rural

developmentwork.Heknewhowstressfulourworkhadbeen,andhadthereforeencouragedmetotake

twomonthsofftolecture,study,andfinishwritingmybookTruthandSocialReform.6HevolunteeredtomanagetheprojectswhileRuth’sparentsinBareilly,inthestateofUttarPradesh,India,lookedafterourdaughters.Papakepthispromisetotherobbers.Hewenttothepoliceonlyafterpayingthemoneyattheagreed-

uponlocation.Thepolice,however,wouldnotevenregisterthecase,andPapabegantosuspectthatthismighthavebeenmorethanamererobbery—thatthe“powersthatbe”wereusingthecriminalstoattackourwork.Inthatcase,Iwouldbetherealtarget,andtheattackonhimmerelyatrialrun—amessageforhisson.Theindifferenceofthepolicemadeitimpossibleformyparentstocontinuelivingintheirisolatedand

vulnerable farmhouse. So they moved to a guesthouse in the city, near the Christian hospital, a fewhundredfeetfromthehomeofPapa’scousin,aretiredphysician.Butinsteadofsolace,theirrelocationbroughtashockmoredevastatingthantheinitialattackonthem.Withinafewdays,myauntandherhusbandwerefoundmurdered.Somemenhadgottenin,tiedthemup,lootedthem,andthenstabbedthemdozensoftimes.Theforensicexpertssaidthemurderersseemedtohavetakenpleasureintheirbrutality.Barelyafortnighthadpassedsincetheirmurderwhenoneofourfield-workersbroughtanalmost-dead

volunteer, Ashraf, to Dr. Mategaonker at the hospital. The field-worker and Ashraf, a Muslim, wereservingdroughtvictimsinatowncalledNagod.Theyhadbeensleepinginseparatequarters,aboutthirtyfeetapart.Attwoo’clockinthemorning,Ashrafhadheardaknock.Whenheopenedthedoor,twomenattackedhimwithaxes.Hepickedupawoodenstoolandtriedinvaintoshieldhimself.Theyknockedhimdownandlefthimfordead,walkingawaywithhisbelongings.Thecumulativeimpactoftheseandotherrelativelyminorincidentswastoconvinceourcommunity

thatthepoliticians,police,andcriminalsmayhavejoinedforcestoeliminateusortodriveusawayfromthearea.Ourchiefopponent,thepoliticianreferredtoinchapter2,fearedourgrowingclout.HemayhavebeenencouragedbysomeHindureligiousleaderswhofearedthatourworkmighteventuallyleadtomanypeoplebecomingfollowersofJesusChrist.Whydidtheynotcounterourinfluencewithserviceworkoftheirown,helpingthepoorandhungry?

All the resources of the Indian government lay at their disposal. Yet the Block Development Office,through which they had to work, was considered one of the most corrupt governmental departments.Officialsandelectedleaders,inthehabitofmisusingdevelopmentfunds,couldnotbeaskedtobecomehonest simply to counteract our influence. Our opponents’ other difficulty was that they considered asignificantproportionoftheneedypeopleweservedtobeuntouchables.Tofollowthecommandment“Lovethyneighborasthyself”requiredmorethanmaterialresources.Toserveuntouchables,theywouldneedasourceofspiritualpowertotranscendtheirculturalprejudicesandtoriskquarrelsathomeandexcommunicationfromtheirowncaste.RuthandIreturnedtoIndiatwomonthsaftertheattackonmyfather.HeandDr.Mategaonker,the

chairmanofourorganization,sentthreeyoungmentoNewDelhitopreventusfromreturningtothearea.TheysuspectedthatImightbestubbornandinsistedthatatleastRuthmustnotcourtdanger.TheyfeltthatRuthmightagreetoputthesecurityofourtwodaughtersfirst,aboveourservice.*Recountingthehorribleeventsofthepreviousmonths,ourthreefriendsproposedthatitwouldbesaferforustostartafreshworkintheslumsofDelhi.Iwantedconclusiveevidence,notjustreasonableguesses,thatthehighestofficialshadplottedtouse

criminalstoputanendtoourwork.Noone,includingme,hadanydoubtsthatthemostimportantlocalpoliticianhatedus.Noonedoubtedthathewaslinkedtoknowncriminals.Hispoweroverthepolicehadalreadysentmetojail.Yet,Iwantedevidencethatwewereupagainstanorganizedplanbackedbythehighest authorities, political as well as civic. In the absence of concrete evidence, I argued that theconspiracycouldbediabolical,thatis,supernatural.Whatelsecouldproducesuchspiritualblindnessandtwistedconscience?Welackedthephysicalresourcestofightouropponents,butiftheevilopposing

uswasspiritual,thenwewereinabattlethatdidn’tdependonweapons.IreasonedwithmyfriendsthatGodhadgivenusadequateresourcesinprayerandfaithtoovercomethisconspiracy.Inanycase,hadn’tJesuscalledustotakeupourcrossesandfollowhim?7Mycoursewascleartome,butIdecidednottoinfluenceRuth’sdecision.Itwouldhavebeenabsurd

tosuggestthatthethreattoherorourdaughterswashypothetical.JesusChristhimselfknewthatfaithwasnot insurance against death; it sometimes brings martyrdom. Ruth decided to think and pray over thematter.Shehadtochoosenotmerelyforherself,butforhertwolittlegirlsaswell.Sheknewherhusbandhadnothingbut faith.Experience, facts,andvoteswereagainstme.Thenextdaysheannouncedherdecision:“ThereisnopointinfollowingJesushalfheartedly.Ifwearegoingtofollowhim,wemightaswelltrusthimandgoalltheway.IwillcomewithyouevenifourfriendsdecidetostayinDelhi.”Withinminutesofherdecision,thephonerang.ItwasLizBrattle.ShehadreturnedfromAustraliaasa

volunteerwithInterServe.In1976,shehadtypedmybookTheWorldofGurus.Now,yearslater,inthefallof1982,withoutanycorrespondencewithus,LizhadcomebacktoIndiaunannounced,toserveasmysecretary!Shecalledbecauseshehadheard thatRuthwouldnotbereturning to thevillage.Shewantedconfirmation,becauseifthatwerethecase,InterServewouldnotallowhertoriskherlifeeither.MinutesafterwefinishedtalkingwithLiz,therewasanothercall.ItwasKayKudart,*someonewedid

notknow.KaysaidthatshewasastudentfromAmerica.ShewaspartoftheHNGR(HumanNeedsandGlobal Resources) program at Wheaton College in Illinois, which required her to do a six-monthinternshipinadevelopingcountry.Shehadnotbeenabletocontactusinthevillagebecausewedidnothaveaphone.Herprofessorhadadvisedhertojustshowup,asourcommunityacceptedalmosteveryonewhocame.AfterarrivinginDelhisheheardthescarystories,butherfaithwasascrazyasours.ShewasfortunatethatherguideinDelhiwasequallyradicalinhisfaith;nevertheless,hehadaresponsibility.HetoldherthathecouldnotallowhertoriskherlifeifRuthwerenotgoing.Thecountrysidewasstunnedwhenwearrivedbackonthebattlefieldwiththreeyoungwomenandtwo

little girls. For our neighbors and opponents, heroism implied the ability to fight back—to find ourenemiesandtakerevenge.TheyassumedthatwemusthaveimportedsecretweaponsfromtheWest.8Itdidnotoccurtothemthatsomeonemightchoosetoservehisenemiesandsacrificehislifeforthem.Forusthiswasaspiritualwarfare.Andwehadasecretweapon—prayer.Inhindsight,IthinkLizandKaywereapartoftheanswertoourprayers.Theybecameaneffectiveshield.Thedistrictauthoritiesmusthavefearedthatharmingthemwouldinternationalizeoursituation,sotheyreinedinthosespearheadingtheopposition.*WasRuth’sdecisiontoreturntoChhatarpurheroicorfoolish?WasitwisetoriskrapeandmurdertocontinueservingGodamongpoorpeasants?Ourchoicewasbaseduponourbeliefs.Itwentagainsttheclassicalandmedievalconceptsofheroism.

THECLASSICALHERO

TheclassicalGreco-RomanworldwouldhaveneverofferedtheNobelPrizeforPeacetoJimmyCarter,adefeatedpresident.Tobeaclassicalherohewouldhaveneededtostrategize,forgealliances,plotassassinations,andbouncebacktopower.Aherowasapersonwhohadthepowertoconquerandruleoverothers.TheGreekmodelwasAlexandertheGreat(356–323BC),oneofhistory’smostruthlessconquerors,whomarchedfromGreecetoIndia.Heconsideredhimselfdivine,asdidhiscontemporaries,and he ordered Greek cities to worship him as god. He left his empire, in his own words, “to thestrongest,”unlikeJesus,whosaidthatthepoorandthemeekwouldinheritthekingdomofGodthathewasusheringin.Alexander’sinvitationtothestrongestensuredconflictsamonghislieutenants,andtheytorehiskingdomapartwithinhalfacentury.AugustusCaesar(63BC–AD14)wastheidealRomanhero.Heconsolidatedhispowerbykilling

threehundredsenatorsandtwohundredknights,includingtheagingoratorCicero.Augustusmadehimself

andhissuccessorsgodsonearth.TheclassicalideaofheroismbecamesodeeplyembeddedinWesternconsciousnessthatNapoleonBonaparte(1769–1821)triedtorevivetheRomanEmpire,modelinghisruleonthatofAugustus.Napoleon’squestforpowerandgloryplungedEuropeintoterribleandmindlesswars. William Blake (1757–1827) lamented, “The strongest poison ever known came from Caesar’slaurelcrown.”9Thisclassicalunderstandingofaheroasapersonwithpowerisalmostuniversal.Itisthecoreofthe

Hinduideaofahero.ThatiswhymostHindugodsandgoddessesaredepictedwithweaponsintheirmanyhands.Thatalsoexplainswhywell-knowncriminalscanwindemocraticelectionsinIndia.Oncetheywin,theirguiltiswrittenoff.Hinduismrequiresthataspiritualheromustalsoconquerhisownbodybycontrollinghiseating,drinking,sexuality,andinvoluntaryactionssuchasbreathing.AnIslamicheroisalsoanindividualwithpower,aslongasitiscoupledwithpietyandprayer.ThatisthechiefreasonwhyaterroristcanbeadevoutMuslimandaherointheeyesoforthodoxclergy.

THEMEDIEVALHERO

TheRomanCatholicChurchinheritedtheclassicalunderstandingofheroismaswellasthecultureofGermanicbarbariansandFrankisharistocrats.Theseculturesprizedpersonalbravery,physicalstrength,and skill in the use of arms. Prowess—the ability to beat other men in battle—became the chivalricvirtue. The sociopolitical chaos that followed the collapse of the Roman Empire in the fifth centuryrecurred after the collapse of the Carolingian dynasty (751– 987). Without a central authority orinstitutionsofjusticeenforcingcontracts,Europe’sfeudalsocietywouldhaveentirelycollapsed,hadnotthevirtueofloyaltyrisentopreeminence.Aknightwasnowconsideredaheroifhehadprowessandifhewasloyaltohislord.Loyaltyasavirtuewascultivatedbywanderingminstrelswhocomposedandcirculatedepictalesof

knightlydeeds.Alongwiththeknights,theydependedonthegenerosity(largesse)ofthecourts.Itwastheminstrels’interestalsotoexaltgenerosityasahighvirtue.Generositymeritedanimportantplaceintheirsongs.Greatheroesweretheoneswhogavethemost.Thefavoritepastimeofaristocraticpatronsofminstrelsandtroubadourswastowinfavorsfromcourt

ladies.Thiscalledforcourtesy.Ifcourtesyweretobeavirtue, ithadtobeextendedalsotofellowknights.Socourtlyloveandcourtesywereaddedtoprowess,loyalty,andgenerosityasmedievalvirtues.A medieval hero’s ultimate goal in life was to find glory, that is, his prestige won in battle was

glorified in songs and stories. He also looted goods from his foes, and, of course, wanted women.Tournamentswereasubstituteforwars.Bythetwelfthcentury,tournamentshadbecomeaflourishinginstitutioninnorthernFrance,spreadingtootherareassoonafterward.FeudalEuropedidnothaveastandingarmytokeeptheseknightsunderdiscipline.Nordidithavea

legalmechanismtoensurethattheknights’aspirationforheroismdidnotinterferewiththesociety’sneedforlawandorder,peaceandstability.Forcenturies,Europelackedapoliticalorderthatcouldcivilizeknightlyheroism.*ThatvacuumwasfilledbytheChurch.In1027,theRomanCatholicChurchinitiatedamovementcalledthe“TruceandPeaceofGod.”It

issuedadecreerestrictingthepursuitofprivatewarfare.TheordinancewasbaseduponanearliercanonlawforbiddinghostilitiesbetweenSaturdaynightandMondaymorning.TheChurchnowextendedthatprohibitiontobanalltypesofprivatewarfare.Inabout1040,thebanwasappliedbetweensunsetonWednesdayandsunriseonMonday.LatertheseasonsofAdvent,Christmas,andLentwereincluded.ThepenaltyforviolatingthetrucewasexcommunicationfromtheChurch.Thiswasanextremelypotentthreatinthatnonsecularera.Itmeantlosingone’ssocialsecurityinthislifeandinthenext.TheChurch’sactualsuccessmaynothavebeenhuge,buttheChurchactedbecausethecivilauthorities

hadalreadyfailed.TheChurch’sattempttoprotectthedefenselessagainstthelawlessnobilityinaperiod

offeudalanarchywasnoble.The“TruceofGod”soonspreadthroughoutFrance,Italy,andGermany.TheEcumenicalCouncilof1179applieditthroughoutWesternChristendom.Formal bans and excommunications were not the only weapons the Church used against medieval

heroes.Inhisauthoritativework,FrenchChivalry,SidneyPainterpointedoutthat“thelargestvolumeofcriticism of chivalric ideas and practices came from the pens of ecclesiastics.”10 For example, thegreatestRomanCatholictheologian,ThomasAquinas(1225–74),condemnedchivalryonthegroundsthatthe knights who sought “glory” through homicide and rapine sought “vainglory.” In 1128, Galbert ofBrugesarguedinhiswritingsthatadesireforfamewasworthy,butforanoblemantokillforthesolepurposeofwinningglorywassin.St.BernardofClairvaux(1090–1153),JohnofSalisbury(1115–80),andafamouspreachernamedJacquesdeVitrywereamongthefiercestcriticsofchivalry.Asaresultofthesewritings,theCouncilofClermont(1130)prohibitedtournaments,labelingthemas

homicidalcontests.Itresolvedthatnoonekilledintournamentscouldbeburiedinconsecratedgrounds.TheLateranCouncilsof1139and1179confirmedtheban,andthebanbecameapartofcanonlawamongthedecretalsofPopeGregoryIX(1147–1241).

RELIGIOUSCHIVALRYWhile leading Catholic writers launched a frontal attack on the medieval concept and practice of

heroism,thechurchadoptedanotherstrategytobringchivalryunderitsmoralauthority.Itritualizedit.Inthethirteenthcentury,thechurchaskedtheesquiretodedicatehisarmoronanaltar.Hestayeduptheentirenightprayingandfasting.Beforedonninghisarmor,hetookaritualbath.Elaborateritualsweredesigned to turn loose cannons into “knights of God.” These were meant to give them a sense ofresponsibilitytoserveGodandtheChurch,andtotakecareoftheweakandvulnerable.InmedievalEnglish,thisculminatedinSirGawainandtheGreenKnight.Thisalliterativepoemis

ourmostimportantsourceofinformationonthecourtofthesemi-legendaryKingArthur.Thepoemexaltstheheroicspiritasakeytotherenewalofsociety.Itdefinesheroiccourtesyasgentilesse—dedicationofagentleman’s(aknight’s)superiorstrengthtothehonororserviceofthosewithlessworldlypower.ThepoemplacesthecodeofcourtesyamongthegloriousaccomplishmentsofEurope’smedievalcivilization.Throughcourtesy,allpeople,includingthelowliest,couldpracticeheroicvirtue.The Church’s attempt to bring chivalry under its moral authority had notable results. One of the

outcomeswasthefoundingoftheOrderoftheKnightsTemplar.TwoFrenchknightsbeganthisorderin1119asasmallmilitarybandinJerusalem.TheiraimwastoprotectpilgrimsvisitingtheHolyLandaftertheFirstCrusade.Militaryinnaturefromthebeginning, theordersoonreceivedpapalsanction.TheCouncilofTroyesgavethemanaustererolepatternedaftertheCistercians.TheKnightsTemplarbegantobecalleduponregularlytotransportmoneyfromEuropetotheHolyLand.Consequently,theydevelopedan efficient banking system upon which the European rulers and nobility came to rely. Gradually theTemplarsbecamebankersforalargepartofEuropeandamassedwealth;however,powerandwealthbroughtcorruptionandtrouble.PhilipIVofFranceandPopeClementVsuppressedandlootedthem,labelingthemasataniccult.TheTeutonicKnightsofSt.Mary’sHospitalatJerusalemareanotherexampleofmodifiedchivalry.

TheywereareligiousmilitaryorderformedbyGermancrusadersin1190–91,inAcrePalestine,andby1199theyreceivedpapalrecognition.ThememberswereGermanknightsofnoblebirth.By1329theyheld the entire Baltic region as a papal fief.* They exist today as a charitable and nursing order,headquarteredinVienna.Notwithstandingsuchnotableexamples,thefactremainsthattheideaofChristianchivalrycouldnotbe

sustained.Ithadnobiblicalfoundations.Itdemanded“noblebirth,”anditglorifiedphysicalprowess,skillinarms,andkilling.ThesewerevaluescontrarytothespiritofChristandhisapostles.Theideaofthe knights of Christ began to be undermined by DevotioModerna, a movement of spiritual reform

centered in the Netherlands, stressing the moral example of Christ. A classic representative of thismovementisthedevotionaltreatise,ImitationofChrist,writtenbytheGermanmonkThomasàKempis(1379–1471).**Strictlyspeaking,àKempis’sbookisnotaboutimitatingtheChristoftheGospels.Thebook’stitle

comesfromtheoldtraditionofusingthefirstphraseofabookasitstitle.Thebook’ssignificanceliesinthefact that itemphasizes the internal,spiritualnatureofChristiandiscipleship,whereas the ideaofreligiousknighthoodhadfocusedonexternalacts.ImitationofChristbecameabridgefromthemedievaltothemodernideaofChristianspiritualityasunderstoodbyDesideriusErasmusandMartinLuther.

MODERNHEROISM

Roland Bainton, Martin Luther’s biographer, gave us a vignette of the modern hero. The Council ofConstance(1417),whichburnedJohnHussatthestake,hadsuppressedthereformmovementinitiatedbyJohnWycliffe.AcenturylateramonkandprofessorattheUniversityofWittenberg,MartinLuther,pickeduptheReformers’baton.KnowingthecontextwillhelpusappreciateLuther’sheroism.In 1516 Albert of Brandenburg borrowed a substantial sum from German bankers to buy the

archbishopricofMainzfromPopeLeoX.Albertwasveryyoung,yethewasalreadythebishopofbothHalberstadtandMagdeburg.PowerfuldynastieshadavestedinterestinkeepingtheChurchasafamilybusiness.BeingthearchbishopofMainzwouldmakeAlbert theprimate*ofGermany.Butoccupyingthreebishopricswasirregular.Itrequiredtheunusuallyhighpriceoftenthousandgoldcoins(ducats).Albertknewthatmoneywouldspeak.Thepopewasinneed.ThepopeauthorizedAlberttosellindulgences(certificatesofremissionofsins)toraisemoney.Half

ofthemoneywastogotothepopeforrebuildingSt.Peter’sCathedralinRome,andtherestwasforAlberttorepaythemoneyborrowedtobribethepope.LutherhadbeenreadingtheGreek-LatinNewTestament, recently translated by Erasmus. Recognized as the greatest humanist scholar of his time,ErasmuswasthenteachinginCambridge.ThroughhistranslationandthemarginalnotesthatexplainedwhyhistranslationdifferedatsomecrucialpointswiththeearlieronecalledtheVulgate,LutherlearnedthatJesushadalreadypaid thepricerequiredforaperson’ssalvation.Jesuswas theLambofGod,sacrificedonthecrossasoursubstitute.Hehadtakenuponhimselfthefullpenaltyofoursin.Therewasnothinghumanbeingscouldpaytobuysalvation.AllthatweneededwastorepentofoursinandacceptthefreegiftofGodbyfaith.Sellingindulgences,Lutherrealized,wasexploitingthemassesinthenameofreligion.Asapriest,

Lutherwasresponsibletoeducatehisflockandprotect themfromravenouswolves.Inthiscase, thewolveshappenedtobehissuperiors,whomhehadtakenvowstoobey.Buthewasalsoaprofessorwithcertainacademicfreedoms;hehadarighttoexpresshisopinionsforhispeers’scrutiny.OnOctober31,1517,Luthernailedhisfamousninety-fivethesesonthedoorsoftheCastleChurchofWittenberg.Thiswasacallforanacademicdebate.ItstatedthattheChurchwasinerrorandthatthesellingofindulgenceswasacorruptexploitationofthepoormasses.Hischallengewassosensationalthatimmediatelycopiesbegantobemade.Agauntlethadbeenthrowndownatathousand-year-oldcivilization.InDecember1520,LutherwasaskedwhetherhewouldbewillingtoappearbeforeEmperorCharles

tobetriedforheresy.JanHus(1369–1415),theCzechreformer,andothersofLuther’spredecessorshadbeenburnedatthestakeinspiteoftheChurch’sassuranceofasafepassage.Lutherhadnotyetbeengivensuchassurance.Hereishowheanswered:

YouaskmewhatIshalldoifIamcalledbytheemperor.IwillgoevenifIamtoosicktostandonmyfeet.IfCaesarcallsme,Godcallsme.Ifviolenceisused,asitmaywellbe,IcommendmycausetoGod.HelivesandreignswhosavedthethreeyouthsfromthefieryfurnaceofthekingofBabylon,andifHewillnotsaveme,myheadisworthnothingcomparedwithChrist.Thisisnotimetothinkofsafety.Imusttakecarethatthegospelisnotbroughtintocontemptbyourfeartoconfessandsealourteachingwithourblood.11

Fortunately,Frederick,thedukeofSaxonyandpatronofLuther’suniversity,obtainedanassuranceof

safepassage.LutherfacedthetrialinthecityofWorms.Theauthoritiesintendedeithertointimidatehimintosubmissionoreliminatethethreatthatheposedtothestatusquo.ItishardtoimproveuponBainton’sprose:

Thescenelendsitselftodramaticportrayal.HerewasCharles,heirofalonglineofCatholicsovereigns—ofMaximiliantheromantic,ofFerdinandtheCatholic,ofIsabellatheorthodox—scionofthehouseofHapsburg,lordofAustria,Burgundy,theLowCountries,SpainandNaples,HolyRomanEmperor, rulingoveravasterdomain thananysaveCharlemagne,symbolof themedievalunities,incarnationofagloriousifvanishingheritage;andherebeforehimasimplemonk,aminer’sson,withnothingtosustainhimsavehisownfaithintheWordofGod.Herethepastandthefutureweremet.Somewouldseeatthispointthebeginningofmoderntimes….Whatoverpoweredhim[Luther]wasnotsomuchthathestoodinthepresenceoftheemperorasthis,thatheandtheemperoralikewerecalledupontoanswerbeforeAlmightyGod.12

Lutherwasnotseekingtobeahero.Hewasbeingobedienttohisconscience,whichheclaimedwascaptivetotheWordofGod.Hedidnotknowthathewasinauguratinganewera,unleashinganewsourceofpower,redefiningheroism,orcontendingforanewsourceofcivilizationalauthority.

THEBIBLEREDEFINESHEROISM

TheRomanCatholicChurchmadeasplendidbeginningintransformingtheWesternideaofthehero.Yet,notwithstanding the exceptions,* the modern hero did not emerge until after the Bible began shapingWestern consciousness. John Milton’s (1608–74) epic ParadiseLost, for example, was a paradigm-alteringforce.Thehero(oranti-hero)ofthisPuritanepicisLucifer(Satan),whowonwhenhumanbeingsfellinsin,losingParadise.Luciferrevealsthecharacterofhisheroismwhenhesaysitis“bettertoreigninhell,thanserveinheav’n.”Animplicationisthatclassicalheroismisdiabolical.Initsquesttorule,itmakesourworldhellish.ClassicalheroismclashedwiththeBiblebecausewhiletheformervaluedpower,Christ’sheroism

prizedtruth.Otherkingdomsfosteredheroicdeedsbycultivatingracial,geographic,linguistic,religious,class,orcasteprideandhatred.JesusmadelovethesupremevalueofthekingdomofGod.Thislovewasnotsentimentalism.Itwentbeyondlovingone’sneighborsasoneself.Itssuprememanifestationwasthecross:sacrificingoneselfforothers,includingone’senemies.Jesus’heroismreplacedbrutalitywithlove,pridewithmeekness,anddominationoverotherswith

self-sacrificing service. He exemplified this when he humbled himself, took a basin of water and aservant’stowel,andstartedwashinghisdisciples’feet.This,hesaid,iswhatthekingdomofGodisallabout.HewastheKingofkingsandtheLordoflords.Allpowerinheavenandonearth,heclaimed,washis.Buthehadcomenottobeserved,buttoserve,nottokillbuttogiveeternallife.Thesewerenothomiliesdeliveredbyaguruwhosatonagoldenthrone.Theseteachingschangedhistorybecausetheyemanatedfromalifelivedinthepublicarena.I became aware of the gospel’s power to transform when I heard our first prime minister, Pandit

JawaharlalNehru,in1963.Hebegan,“Fellowcitizens,Ihavecometoyouasyourfirstservant,becausethatiswhatthetermprimeministerliterallymeans.”ItamazedmebecauseevenasayoungboyIknewthatnorulerinIndia’slonghistoryhadeverseenhimselfasaservant.PanditNehrudidsobecausetheBiblehadbeentransformingAllahabad,wherebothofusgrewup.FromAllahabadhewenttoEnglandtostudy.Britain’spoliticalsystemhadbeenbroughtundertheauthorityoftheWordofGodthroughlongspiritualstruggles.Manyheroesdiedtotakepowerfromkingsandgiveittoservants(ministers).Asaresult,thefirstservantbecamemoreimportantthantheking.Jesusbeganthisrevolutionwhenhetaught,“andwhoeverwouldbefirstamongyoumustbeyourslave,evenastheSonofMancamenottobe

servedbuttoserve,andtogivehislifeasaransomformany.”13HowdidthekingdomofLucifer,whichworshippedpower,cometoacceptahumiliatedandcrucified

ChristastheAlmightyGod?ThechurchsawthecrossofChristastheonlywaytosalvation.TheapostlePaulwrotethatJewswere

lookingforademonstrationofmiraculouspowersandthattheGreeksconsideredhisgospelfoolishnessbecausetheysoughtknowledge.Hewas,however,determinedtopreachnothingbutthecrossofChrist,because the weakness of God on Calvary’s cross was more powerful than the mightiest man. ThefoolishnessofthegospelwaswiserthanallthewisdomofGreekphilosophers.14FollowingtheNewTestament’semphasisonthecross, thepreacherspreachedaboutthecross, the

painterspaintedit, thepoetswrotepoemsaboutit,andthesingerssangaboutthegloriesofthe“oldruggedcross.”Carpentersandmasonsmadesomanycrossesthat thecrossbecametheverymotifofChristiancivilization.Architectsplacedthecrossasthecenterpieceofthestainedglasswindowsoftheirchurches and cathedrals. As masses sat meditating on the meaning of the cross, it changed Westernconsciousnessfromwithin.Abrutal,triumphantknightcouldnolongerbeaninspiringChristianhero.Hewastheveryoppositeofacrucified,humiliatedMessiahwhodiedsothatothersmaylive.TheBibleensuredthatheroismtookonanewmeaning.Heroismnowmeantarobustfaiththatrefuses

tobowbeforeevilandfalsehood.AfaiththattriumphsoverSatan’sultimateweapon,thefearofdeath.15ItinvolvesasurrendertoGodthatauthorizesGodtosacrificeyouforothers’benefit.16ThiswastheheroismofWycliffe,Hus,Luther,Tyndale,Calvin,Knox,and thosewhofollowedthemtocreate themodernworld.These were not supermen. They were people like us—fallible, with feet of clay. They made their

mistakes.Lutherjustifiedcrushingthepeasants’revolt.ManyLutheransdidnottoleratetheAnabaptists.Theywerechildrenofanintolerantandbrutalmedievalage.Yet,theybecamethepioneersofthemodernworldbecause theyalso transcended theirage.Theyushered in thegreatest revolutionof thesecondmillennium—arevolutionthat,amongotherthings,turnedheroesintoself-sacrificingservants.*Whenthefirstcrusadersfinallystormedthe“HolyCity”JerusalemonJuly15,1099,they“purified”itbykillingvirtuallyeveryinhabitant.*TheNewTestamentjustifiestheuseoftheswordbythestatetorestrainevil.See,forexample,Romans13:1–5.* Of course, India was a thousand petty kingdoms when the East Indian Company colonized it. The idea of India as one nation came(indirectly)fromtheBibleduringthecolonialera.**HemayfeelthatcolonizationistheonlywaytoblessAfghanistan,butfornowhecannotsaythistoevenhistrustedfriends.Theideaismorallyunthinkable.*NiveditandAnanditwerethenfiveandthreeyearsold.*Now,KayHoller.*Myfatherdiedafewmonthslater,andthenweheardthatthosewhohadrobbedhimdiedinanaccidentinvolvingthemotorcycletheyhadboughtwithhismoney.*TheChurchsentknightsoncrusadestoliberateJerusalempartlybecauseathometheywerenuisances.*Landorpropertyheldunderthefeudalsystemof“ownership.”**Somescholarsdispute thatThomasàKempiswas theauthorof thisparticularvolume, though itdoesrepresenthisunderstandingofChristianspirituality.*Thehighestrankingbishopofaprovince.*St.Patrickisagoodexception.SeeCahill’sHowtheIrishSavedCivilization.

ChapterNine

REVOLUTION

WHATMADETRANSLATORSWORLDCHANGERS?

WilliamTyndale(1492–1536)shouldnothavebeenshocked,buthewas.BishopTunstallhadburnedcopiesofhisNewTestament,thefirstattemptevertoprinttheBibleinEnglish.*Thebishopdidnotactimpulsively.OnOctober24,1526,hepreachedhisfirstsermonagainstTyndale’sNewTestamentatthemagnificentSt.Paul’sCathedralinLondon.**HethenproceededwithapublicBiblebonfire.Then,inthesummerof1529,heboughtuptheentireavailablestockinAntwerp,acrosstheEnglishChannel,toburnBibles inabiggerbonfire.Not longafterward, thebishopofCambraipresidedoverTyndale’s trial,whichledtoburningtheBibletranslatorhimself.TheferocityofthisoppositionshouldnothavesurprisedTyndalebecauseBishopsFisherandWolsey

hadalreadybeenburningMartinLuther’sGermanNewTestamentimportedintoEngland.AndsimilarburningshadbeengoingonincontinentalEuropewhereTyndalewashidingasafugitive,refusingtorepentofsharingtheopinionsofthehereticMartinLuther.Hiscrime?Hewasstrangledandburnedasaheretic,thoughhealsowasguiltyofleavingEngland

withoutpermissionandillegallytranslatingtheBibleintoEnglish.The“Constitutionsof[Archbishop]Arundale”hadoutlawedtranslatingtheBibleintoEnglishin1408inresponsetotheearlierworkbyJohnWycliffe(1330–84)andhisassociatesinOxford.TyndaleknewthatEnglishbishopshadbeenburningalltheavailablemanuscriptsandfragmentsofthe

WycliffeBibleformorethanacentury.Thebishopshadalsobeenburningpeoplealivewhopossessedevenfragmentsofitscopies.ToownafewpagesofanEnglishBiblewasevidence*thatonewasaLollard—afollowerofJohnWycliffe.ThatdistinguishedOxfordprofessorhadbeendeclareda“heretic”posthumouslyattheCouncilofConstancein1417.Hisbonesweredugoutofthecemeteryandburned,andtheasheswerethrownintotheriverAvon.WhywouldbishopsburnBibles,Bibletranslators,andBiblebuyers?Thechargeof“heresy”wasaproverbialfigleaf.TheBiblewasburnedbecausetheBibletranslators

hadbegunabattleforthesoulofEurope.TheyweretransformingEurope’sthousand-year-oldcivilizationfrommedievaltomodern.Theywererevolutionarieswhosoughttomakethepope’sauthoritysubjecttotheWordofGod.Every civilization is tied together by a final source of authority that gives meaning and ultimate

intellectual, moral, and social justification to its culture. For Marxists it may beDasCapital or theCommunistParty.ForMuslimsitcouldbetheQur’anorthecaliphate.RomecreatedthecoreofwhatwecalltodaytheWest.FromthefallofRometotheReformation,thepapacyhadbeentheprincipalauthorityforWesternChristians.Tothepresenttime,Westerncivilizationhashadatleastfivedifferentsourcesofcultural authority: Rome, the pope, the Bible, human reason, and the current individualistic nihilismwhosefuturewillbedeterminedbyquasi-democraticculturewars.Thischaptertellsthestoryofthereformerswhoreplacedthepope’sauthoritywiththatoftheBible.

THEROMANPHASE

Rome’sinfluenceontheWestlastedfromtheriseofCaesarAugustusabout27BCtothesackingofRomeinAD410.Prior toAugustus,Romewasarepublic, runbyafewpowerfulfamilieswhokepteachother’sambitionincheck.AftertheSenatemurderedJuliusCaesarin44BC,hisnephew,Augustus,madehimselftheultimatesourceofauthorityintheRomanEmpire.Thattooknearlytwodecadesofbloodycivilwar.Caesarwasalreadyamilitary leader,buthemadehimself thesolepoliticalandreligiousauthority—the“Lord.”Hisauthorityrestedonthepowerofthesword.Philosophersandpoets,artistsandarchitects,mythmakersandpriests ralliedroundCaesar’sbrutepower tobuildanentirecivilization.AfterAugustus,eachsuccessiveCaesarwouldusuallybeginhisreignbydeifyinghispredecessor.The Augustan age accepted the sword as mightier than the pen because the Romans knew that

philosophers,storytellers,andwritersdidnotknowthetruth.PoetssuchasVirgilusedreligiousmythstowriteaestheticallysuperbpropagandathatjustifiedAugustus’suseoftheswordinmakinghimselfthedivineLord.Thisdisregardfortruthmadethepenpowerless.Writers,poets,philosophers,andoratorsacquired patronage but lost legitimacy. For example, Cicero, one of the greatest Roman orators andphilosophers,supportedAugustusinhisinitialpowerstruggle.TheduplicitousAugustusrepaidhimbyorderinghismurdersoonafterward!Intothisstory-based,politicallyoppressiveculturecameJesus,whounleashedthepoweroftruth.The

RomangovernorPontiusPilatewasbaffledwhenJesusclaimedthathewasnotanotherreligiousmyth-maker.Hehadcometobearwitnesstotruth.1Forcenturies,noonehadinvokedtruth’sauthority.JesusdidnotmerelyclaimthatheknewGodbecausehewasGod’sunique,“onlybegotten,”son.HeclaimedthathiswordswereGod’swords,andthatheembodiedtruth.2PilatethreatenedhimwithcrucifixionwhenJesuschallengedCaesar’slordshipandRome’struthlesstotalitarianism.Hisdictum,“RendertoCaesarthethingsthatareCaesar’s,andtoGodthethingsthatareGod’s”3meantthatCaesarhadnorighttoclaimtheallegiancethatbelongedtoGod.Jesus’beliefthatthekingdomofthisworldoughttobelongtoGodbeganthelongconflictbetweentheswordandJesus’followers,thefollowersofthetruth.ThosewhofollowedJesusweretiredofmen’sstoriesandtheirkingdoms.TheywereseekingGod’s

kingdom,akingdomthatdidnotderiveitslegitimacyfromthesword,philosophy,ormyths,butfromtruth.Therefore,whileJesus’followershonoredcivicauthorityasdivinelyordained,theircommitmenttotruth empowered them to resist the sword when demanded that they bend the knee before falsehood.Christiansdidnotseethemselvesas“revolutionaries.”TheywerenotseekingtousurpCaesar’sthrone.Itwas their commitment to truth that forbade ascribing divinity to Caesar or submitting to brute forceexercisedapartfromgoodness.TheRomanEmpirewaspluralistic.Ittoleratedallstoriesandreligions.Whatitrefusedtotoleratewas

arejectionofthefinalityofitsownauthority.LargenumbersofChristfollowerswereburnedalivebyemperorsfromNero(AD37–68)toDiocletian(AD284-305)becausetheircommitmenttothetrueGodwasathreattoRome’sabsolutism.Jesus’statementthatthosewholivebythesword,shalldiebythesword4turnedouttobepropheticfor

Rome.AlarictheVisigothledGermanbarbarianstoashockingtriumphoverRomeinAD410.ThisdefeatdealtadeathblowtothemyththatCaesarwasLord.Thathastenedtheendnotjustofanempirebutofacivilizationbuiltonstory,poetry,andpower.InplaceofCaesarandhismyth,thebarbariansbroughtchaos—leavingalargevacuum.

THEPAPALPHASE

Rome’sfallcausedbureaucratstofleefromtheirpostswithwhatevertheycouldgrab.Theyhadgoodreasonstofearthepeopletheyhadlootedwiththebackingoftheimperialarmy.Inmostcases,theonly

officialwhoremainedtohelpthepeoplewasthebishoporpriest.DuringthefirstfivecenturiesafterChrist,thelocalbishopwasthepeople’selderandoftenwaschosenbythem.Hisauthoritycamefromhistrackrecordofcommunityservice,leadership,wisdom,andintegrity.Jesushaddescribedaleader’sroleasthatofashepherdtohisflock.Thegoodshepherd,asJesus

taughtbywordanddeed,laysdownhislifeforhissheep.St.Cyprian(ca.200–258),thearistocraticbishopofCarthage,exemplifiedJesus’viewofleadership.St.Cypriandescribedhisdemocraticstyleofservantleadership:“Fromthebeginningofmyepiscopate,Idecidedtodonothingofmyownopinionprivatelywithoutyouradviceandtheconsentofthepeople.”5Unfortunately,afterthefifthcentury,thatstylebecametheexception.*Timesofturmoilarepoorbreedinggroundsforliteracyandeducation.**Inthechaosfollowingthe

collapse of Rome, a bishop often remained the only literate person in a region. Democracy, whichdependsonawell-informedelectorate,begantodisappearfromthechurch.Illiteratechiefsbackedbylocalgangsfilledtheadministrativevacuumleftbytheabsenceofcentrallyappointedsecularauthorities.Bishops became mentors to the chiefs. In turbulent times, people tend to bow to whoever promisessecurity,stability,andjustice.Neitherthebishopsnorthechiefsobjectedtoincreasingtheirpowersatthepeople’sexpense.Inadditiontobeingeducated,thelocalbishopwasconnectedtoalargerorganization,headquarteredin

theimperialcityofRome.TheChurchofRomewastheonlyentitythatretainedtheRomangeniusfororganizationandgrandeur.ItsbishopclaimedtohaveGodonhisside,empoweringhimtoconferdivinelegitimacyoncivilauthorities.Therefore, itbecameintherulers’best interest todefendthebishop’sauthority.Aparticularrulermightbemorepowerful thanabishoporapope,butChristendomhadonlyone

pope,***andhecouldalwayscountonthesupportofaruler’srivalswhowantedtoextendtheirlittlekingdoms.Becausepopesclaimedforthemselvesthepowertoremitsinsandfreesoulsfrompurgatory,anyonewishingtoruleinChristendomhadtoturntothisoneChurchtoreceivedivinelegitimacy.PopesfirstusedthispowertomobilizeChristiansagainstMuslimsviatheCrusades.ThentheybeganusingittomobilizeChristiansagainstthoseChristianrulerswhodispleasedtheChurchhierarchy.6Thus,overtime,theRomanCatholicChurchfilledthevacuumcreatedbyRome’sdemise.Thepapacy

became the ultimatesource of authority.Western civilizationbecame “Christendom” as the bishop ofRomepontificatedastheinfalliblevoiceofGod,theultimatearbiterinallmatters.Hedecidedwhetherornotthesunrevolvedaroundtheearth,whetherHenryVIIIcoulddivorcehiswife,orwhethertheBiblecouldbetranslatedintoEnglish.Thispowerneednothavemadethechurchahierarchical,authoritarianstructure.Thehierarchycould

havesubmitteditselftoGod’sWord,whichmadeallGod’schildrena“royalpriesthood.”7ButignorantoftheWordofGod,bishopsandpriestsmadethemselvesaccountablenottoGod’speoplebuttothepope.IthelpedthattheChurchownedvirtuallyallthecentersoflearning.*ThesecenterscouldhavebeenusedtoeducatethepeopleofGod,butitbecameintheChurch’svestedinteresttokeepevenliteratepeopleignorantoftheBible.TheChurchhadacquired itspower in thenameof truth throughdedicatedservice,commitment to

wisdom,anddisciplinedorganizationallabor.Thisreputationwaslargelylegitimate;itwasunnecessaryfor the Church to reinforce that power through forgery, deception, and magic, coupled with shrewddiplomacy, wars, or assassinations. A famous forgery that gave the Church secular power was theDonationofConstantine. This eighth-century document purported to have been written by a fourth-centuryemperor,Constantine,conferringtemporalpowersuponPopeSylvester,whobaptizedhim.ItwasnotuntiltheRenaissancethatadevoutphilologistandwriternamedLorenzoValla(1405–1457)exposedtheforgery.8

ByTyndale’stimeChrist’schurchofpietyhadbecomeRome’schurchofpower.PowersoblindedtheChurch’shierarchythatitbeganpersecutingthepiousfollowersofJesusChristjustasRomanemperorshaddoneathousandyearsearlier.Bishops’palacesbecametorturechambersfordedicatedChristians.Forexample,painterEdwardFreesewasimprisonedatthebishop’shouseatFulham.Hiscrime?OnaclothforthenewinninColchester,hehadpainted“certainsentencesofScripture[inEnglish]:andbythathewasplainlyknowntobeoneofthemthattheycallheretics.”9

THEBIBLICALPHASE

THEREFORMATION’SMORNINGSTARThese “heretics” were not atheists or agnostics. They were radical Reformers.* They questioned

whetherultimateauthoritybelongedtotheChurch.Voicesforpracticalreformshadneverbeenabsent,however.Theywereoftenheardandoftenenjoyedfinancialsupport,employment,andevenprotectionbybishops and other church officials. Lorenzo Valla, for example, was a papal secretary. The newReformerswerepunishedashereticsbecausetheyreplacedtheauthorityofthepopewiththeauthorityofGod’sWord.JohnWycliffewasnotthefirstsuchReformer,butasoneofthegreatestscholarsofhistime,hetookuphispenagainstthepope’ssword(usuallywieldedviasecularforces).Heraisedthequestionofultimateauthority,challengingtheveryfoundationsofachurchgovernedbysinful,andattimes,foolishmen.Here,inWycliffe’sownwords,istheheartofthematter:

WeoughttobelieveintheauthorityofnomanunlesshesaytheWordofGod.ItisimpossiblethatanywordordeedofmanshouldbeofequalauthoritywiththeHolyScripture….Believersshouldascertainforthemselveswhatarethetruemattersoftheirfaith,byhavingtheScripturesinalanguagewhichallmayunderstand.Forthelawsmadebyprelatesarenottobereceivedasmattersoffaith,norarewetoconfideintheirpublicinstructions,norinanyoftheirwords,butastheyarefoundedinHolyWrit,sincetheScripturescontainthewholetruth….ItistheprideofLucifer,andevengreaterpridethanhis,tosaythattheteachersofman’straditions,madeofsinfulfools,aremoreprofitableandneedfultoChristianpeoplethanthepreachersoftheGospel.10

PeoplereveredandfollowedtheReformersbecausetheywerenotpromotingthemselves.Theywere

learnedandgodlymenwhoriskedtheirlivesforthepublicgood,includingthegoodoftheChurch.TheywantedtoliberateandempowerthemassesbygivingtothemtheknowledgeandauthorityofthetruthbytranslatingtheScripturesintothevernaculars.Attimes,secularrulersalsosupportedanddefendedthoseReformerswhopointedoutthat,according

totheBible,GodhadgivencertainauthoritytosecularrulersandthatitwaswrongfortheChurchtousurppowerthatbelongedtothestate.Such,forexample,wasthecontextofWycliffe’sentryintothepublicarena,outsidetheacademiclifeofOxford.IncitedbytheFrenchking,thepopehaddemandedthatEdwardIIIshouldpay(alongwiththearrears) theannualtributeearlier imposedbythedisreputablePopeInnocentIII.Englandhaddiscontinueditspaymentofthatunjusttributelongbefore.ThepeopleofEnglandresentedthedemand.Parliamentvotedagainstitin1366.Butitwasunsafeto

disobeythepope.FrancewouldhavelovedtogoonaHolyWarinsupportofthepope.OnecriticofParliament’s decision directed his attack against Wycliffe, whom he considered the brain behindParliament’s policy. Wycliffe had been ordained and been appointed parish priest of several smallholdings—Lutterworthfrom1374to1384beingthemostwell-known.WhatrighthadhetogoagainsttheChurch?Didanyonehavetherighttodisagreewiththepope,God’svoiceonearth?TheattacksraisedthequestionwhetherultimateauthorityrestedwiththepopeorintheScriptures.ThatattackstirredWycliffe’smightypen,whichbeganarevolutionbecauseitwrestledwiththeissues

oftruth.Atfirst,Wycliffe’swritingsmadehimthechampionofanationalcause.Afterhisdeath,thesamewritingsearnedhimthelabel“heretic.”ManydevoutCatholicshadbeenspeakingagainstcorruptionintheChurch.WhatmadeReformerslikeWyclifferevolutionarieswasthattheyintroducedafoundational

change—Scripturesweretobeheldabovemen,includingthepopes.Wycliffe’sfollowersbegantranslatingtheBibleintoEnglishsothatpeoplecouldreadGod’sWordfor

themselvesanddiscovertruth.Wycliffe’stranslation(madebeforetheinventionoftheprintingpress)wascopiedandstudied.ItexposedmanyofthedeceptionsthatlayattherootofChurch’sclaimtopower.GraspingthesocialimplicationsoftranslatingtheBibleinWycliffe’sdaywillhelpusunderstandwhyheiscalled“theReformation’sMorningStar,”andwhytranslatingtheBiblebirthedthemodernworld.DuringWycliffe’stime,Englandwasathree-tieredliteraryhierarchy.LiketherestofEurope’selites,

England’sintellectualelitespokeLatin.TheBiblewastheirbook.TranslatedbySaintJerome(347–419),thisLatin“Vulgate”heldswayforathousandyears.Churchleaders,includingWycliffe,wereapartofthisexclusiveclub.Belowthemwerethenobility,whospokeFrenchoritsAnglo-Normandialect.TheyhadsomeportionsoftheScripturesavailabletothemintheirdecliningdialect.Atthebottomofthesocial ladder were the illiterate peasants, who spoke primitive English. Hardly anyone thought ofenlighteningthem.LiteraryeffortsinEnglish,suchasChaucer’s(1343–1400)CanterburyTales,cameafterWycliffe.MostofWycliffe’scontemporariesscornedtheideathattheBiblecouldbetranslatedintoarusticdialectlikeEnglish.Elitismkeepsothersdown.Ituseseverything,includinglanguage,education,andreligiontosuppress

themasses.TheBiblecouldbeusedtoopposetheChurchbecausecaringforthepoorandtheoppressedisakeybiblicalvalue.11MosesbeganwritingtheTorahafterliberatingtheHebrewsfromtheirslaveryinEgypt.TheNewTestamentwasborninthecontextofRome’scolonizationoftheJews.TheBibleisaphilosophyof freedom.It isverydifferent fromthespeculationsof theupper-castephilosophersandsagesinmycountry,whotaughtthatthosewhosufferedinignorance,poverty,andpowerlessnessdidsobecauseoftheirpoorkarmainpreviouslives.TheBibletranslatorsbeganwhattheMarxistslatertriedtoduplicate—the creation of a classless society. Oxford historian Alister McGrath wrote that byencouragingthetranslationoftheBibleintoEnglish,

Wycliffethreatenedtodestroythewholeedificeofclericaldominationinmattersoftheologyandchurchlife.ThetranslationoftheBibleintoEnglishwouldbeasocialleveleronahithertounknownscale.AllwouldbeabletoreadChristendom’ssacredtext,andjudgeboththelifestyleandteachingsofthemedievalchurchonitsbasis.Theveryideasentshockwavesthroughoutthecomplacentchurchestablishmentoftheday.12

SomepeopleridiculetheProtestantReformersbutrelishthenotionofhumanequality.Theydonot

know that the Reformers paid with their lives to make the biblical idea of equality a foundationalprincipleofthemodernworld.Today,wetakeitforgrantedthatupliftingthedowntroddenisanoblevirtue. In Wycliffe’s England, the idea of raising peasants to the status of aristocracy was abhorrent.HenryKnighton,oneofthoseWycliffe-haters,putonpapertheelitistreactiontoWycliffe’sradicalefforttoupliftpeasants,women,andother“swine”:

JohnWycliffetranslatedthegospel,whichChristhadentrustedtoclericsanddoctorsofthechurch,sothattheymightadministeritconvenientlytothelaity…WycliffetranslateditfromLatinintoEnglish—nottheangeliclanguage.Asaresult,whatwaspreviouslyknownonlybylearnedclericsandthoseofgoodunderstandinghasbecomecommon,andavailabletothelaity—infact,eventowomenwhocanread.Asaresult,thepearlsofthegospelhavebeenscatteredandspreadbeforeswine.13

Mostpeoplefailtorealizethatthemodernworldwasbirthedinthosetheologicalcontroversiesthat

nowseemtrivialtous.InWycliffe’shands,thebiblicaldoctrineofpredestinationandthecontroversyover transubstantiationbecamethe“bombthatrockedthepapacy.”14HeusedtheBible’s teachingonpredestinationtoarguethatGod,nottheChurch,choosesthesaved.TheChurchconsistsbothofsaintsandsinners.Itispossiblethatevenapopemaynotbepredestinedtosalvation.Likewise,hismockingtheideaoftransubstantiationrobbedthepriestsoftheirmagicalpowertoturnordinarybreadandwineintotheverybodyandbloodofJesusChrist.SuchwritingsthrewEnglandintoturmoil.

Wycliffewassuspectedofstirringarevolutionwhenthesocialunrestofhistimeculminatedinthepeasants’revoltof1381.MobsoffrustratedlaborersmarchedonLondon.TheinstigatorsjustifiedtheiractbyinvokingtheauthorityofWycliffe’sscholarship.ChristopherdeHamel,manuscriptscholarfromOxford and Cambridge, summarized the situation by saying, “English was the language of peasants.Therefore, inproposingthat theBibleshouldbe translated,Wycliffewas touchingonissuesofclassprejudicewhichstillconfoundsocietyinEnglandbutwhichwerethenofexceptionalsensitivity.”15Wycliffewasaherowhodisownedhisclassandsidedwiththe“swine,”theunderdogs.Why?Not

becausehewastryingtowinademocraticelection.Democracyfollowedinhistrail.Rather,WycliffewasfollowingMoses,who“chosetobemistreatedalongwiththepeopleofGodratherthantoenjoythepleasuresofsinforashorttime.”16HefollowedJesus,whopreachedthegoodnewstothepoor.17ItwasneitherpursuitofcareernorpoliticalcorrectnessbutcommitmenttotruththatinspiredWycliffetobegintranslatingtheBibleintoEnglish.Thesamecommitmentempoweredpeopletocopybyhandthatbannedtranslationattheriskoftheirlives.Evenreadingthattranslationrequiredspecialpermission,andanyonecaughtwithacopycouldbetriedforheresyandburnedatthestake.

DESIDERIUSERASMUSApowerfulpleafortranslatingtheScripturescameacenturylaterfromDesideriusErasmus(1466?–

1536),a leadingRenaissancewriter.ThisDutchwriter,scholar,andhumanist interpreted intellectualcurrentsoftheItalianRenaissancefornorthernEurope.Patronsofhighcultureacknowledgedhimastheforemost humanist scholar. Popes and bishops courted him. Erasmus accepted their benefaction butcriticizedtheircorruption.Hecalledformoralreform,especiallyafter1513,whenPopeLeoXcalledforanewCrusadeagainsttheTurks.ThepopeofferedthecrusadersplenaryremissionsofallsinsandreconciliationwiththeMostHigh.Erasmuswasthepope’sfriend,buthewroteapassionateComplaintofPeace.HearguedthattheLordJesushadaskedtheChurchtogivetheworldthegospel,notthesword.ErasmushadtraveledthroughoutEurope,witnessingherstrifeandpain.HehadmasteredalltheGreek

andRomanwisdomavailable,includingwhatcameintoLatinviaMuslimscholars,buthefoundnothingexcepttheBiblethatcouldbringreformandpeace.HeadvocatedthattheBiblebetranslatedandmadeaccessibletopeasantsandeventowomen:

Christwisheshismysteriespublishedasopenlyaspossible.IwouldthateventhelowliestwomenreadtheGospelsandthePaulineEpistles.AndIwouldthattheyweretranslatedintoalllanguagessothattheycouldbereadandunderstoodnotonlybyScotsandIrishbutalsobyTurksandSaracens…Wouldthat,asaresult,thefarmersingsomeportionofthemattheplow,theweaverhumsomepartsofthemtothemovementofhisshuttle, thetravelerlightenthewearinessofthejourneywithstoriesofthiskind!Letall theconversationsofeveryChristianbedrawnfromthissource.18

Erasmus undertook to bring out a fresh Latin translation of the New Testament. He used the best

availableGreekmanuscriptsandcorrectedmistakesmadebyJeromeelevenhundredyearsearlier.One“minor”correctionbecamefoundationaltotheReformationandalsooneofthemostdisputedbiblicalphrases of the sixteenth century. Christ’s predecessor, John the Baptist, had called his first-centurylisteners to repent. St. Jerome had translated repentance as penitentiam agite, which means “dopenance.”Erasmusproposedthat thecorrectLatinequivalentwouldbeResipiscite,“bepenitent.”Erasmus’s

concernwastorenderanaccuratetranslation.Hehadnoideathathistranslationwouldunderminealargepartofthesuperstructureofmedievalreligiosity:Christiansgoingonpilgrimages,buyingindulgences,and doing penance to earn spiritual merit and God’s grace. As Martin Luther saw it, Erasmus’srediscoveryofasimplebiblicaltruthfreedpeoplefromeconomicexploitationinthenameofreligion.

MARTINLUTHER

Luther followed Erasmus’s advice regarding Bible translation. Many feared that Luther would bedestroyedasahereticafterhisheroicstandatthetrialatWorms.*ButFrederick,hisuniversity’spatron,orderedsomeofhistrustedsoldiersto“kidnap,”hide,andprotectLuther.TheyhidhimatthecastleofWartburg.ThoughtheythoughtLutherhadbeenkilled,hisfriendsstartedreceivinglettersandwritingsfromhimthatlaidmuchofthefoundationfortheReformation.Lutherhatedhisconfinement.Itgavehiminsomniaandpsychosomaticillnesses.Besideswritingletters

andbooks,healsousedthetimetotranslatetheNewTestamentintoGerman.ThatbecamethefoundationforreformingGerman-speakingEurope.Themasses,whodidnotknowGreekorLatin,beganreadingorhearing God’s Word in a language they understood. This democratized truth, enabling simple people(futurevoters)tomakeuptheirownmindsincontroversiesbetweenthechurch-stateestablishmentandtheReformers.Luther’sNewTestamenthadhundredsofprintruns,19includingseveralpiratededitions.ItestablishedthestandardlanguageformodernGerman.

WILLIAMTYNDALEFor theEnglish-speakingpeople,WilliamTyndalepickedupLuther’sbaton.Aftergraduatingfrom

Oxford,WilliamTyndaleisbelievedtohavespentsometimeinCambridge.SincetheCamRiveropensintothesea,smugglersfounditeasiertobringLuther’sbannedbooksintoCambridgethanintoOxford.SomestudentsweredeeplyconcernedwiththestateofaffairsintheChurchandthenation.Theyweredevoutstudents,but theydefiedtheofficialban,frequentingpubstosecretlyreadsmuggledbooksofLuther’ssubversiveliterature.ThismadeCambridgeEngland’sgatewaytoReformationideas.Secrecy was the hallmark of pre-democratic, hierarchic Europe. But juicy secrets have a way of

leakingout.Someof thesewereasdisturbingas theywere titillating.According tohistorianJohnF.D’Amico,althoughvowsofchastitywerecompulsoryfortheclergy,concubinageandprostitutionwerethrivinginstitutionsinRome.Almostalltheclergy,includingthepopes,participatedinthiscorruption.20Andtherewereplentyofstoriesaboutsimony—buyingandsellingofpowerintheChurch.Albertbuyinghisarchbishopricfromthepopewasoneexample.Butnotallbishopssoldindulgences

topaybacktheirdebts.Sometookthefasterrouteofextortingmoneyfromtheirpriests.Forexample,PopeAlexanderVIarrestedCardinalOrsiniondubiouscharges.Thecardinalconvenientlydiedshortlyafter his arrest, allowing the pope to confiscate his considerable estate.21 Stories like these causedstudentstoaskquestions.OxfordandCambridgewereChurchinstitutions,andmostoftheirstudentswerepreparingtoserveGod.DidservingtheChurchequalservingGod?ManystudentsagreedwithLutherthatreformwastheneedofthehour.Several factors convinced Tyndale that biblical illiteracy was an important source of Europe’s

corruption.ProfessorDavidDaniell,oneoftheworld’sforemostauthoritiesonTyndale,explainedthatsomepriestswhoknewlittleLatin“wouldbeglossingandallegorizingafewtextsofScripture,twistingthemintocuriousshapesthattheChurch’scenturies-oldtraditionofexegesisexpected—andusingLatinScriptures,ofcourse,whichinplacesdifferedmarkedly(andconveniently)fromtheGreekoriginals.”22PriestsoftentwistedanddisobeyedGod’sWord,includingtheTenCommandments.Manypriestsdid

not even know the Ten Commandments. In 1551, three decades after Tyndale’s New Testament, areformingBishopHooperdiscoveredthatinGloucestershire,oneofthegodliestplacesinEngland,“[o]ftheunsatisfactoryclergy,ninedidnotknowhowmanycommandmentstherewere,33didnotknowwherethey appeared in the Bible (the gospel of Matthew was a favourite guess) and 168 could not repeatthem.”23TyndalefirstannouncedhisresolvetomaketheWordofGodavailabletothemasseswhenapriest

advisedhimthat“wewerebetterbewithoutGod’slawthanthepope’s.”Tyndaleretorted,“IfGodsparemylifeeremanyyears,Iwillcauseaboythatdriveththeplough,shallknowmoreofthescripturesthan

thoudost.”24ThatwasanechoofthewishthatErasmushadexpressedwhenheponderedthequestionofhowtoreformChristendom.TyndalesoughtpermissionfromBishopTunstallofLondontotranslatetheBibleintoEnglish.Tunstall

had personally helped Erasmus with his Latin translation, but he refused to allow a translation intoEnglish.HelookeduponTyndaleasanotherpositionseeker,anxioustodisplayhisliterarytalents.ItisalsolikelythatthebishopdidnotwanttoproduceanotherWycliffeoranEnglishLuther.TyndalespentanotheryearinLondonexploringallhisoptionsfortranslatingtheBiblelegally.Finally

herealizedthatnooneinEnglandwouldallowhimtodotheonethingthatwasneededtoreformhisnation—translatetheBibleintoEnglish.ThemissiontogiveGod’sWordtohispeoplerequiredhimtorisk his life. He slipped out of England, hoping to find support on the Continent, where Luther’sReformationhadalreadybegun.This“fugitive”neededonlyafewsecretsupporters togiveuswhatbecamethegreatestbookintheEnglishlanguageandculture.ThebishopsperceivedTyndale’stranslationasathreatbecauseittransferredpowerfromtheleaders

tothepeople,andit impliedthat theRomanCatholichierarchywasmoreRomanthanChristian.Forexample,TyndaledeliberatelydecidednottotranslatetheGreekwordekklesiaas“church.”Jesushadusedekklesiatodescribethecommunityoffollowersthathewasgoingtoleavebehindhim.ThankstoRenaissancephilologists,Tyndaleknewthatthewordhadoriginallymeantademocratic“assembly”or“congregation.”Inthewordsoftwentieth-centurytheologianWilliamBarclay,

Theecclesia[ekklesia]wastheconvenedassemblyofthepeople[inGreekcity-states].Itconsistedofallthecitizensofthecitywhohadnotlosttheircivicrights.ApartfromthefactthatitsdecisionsmustconformtothelawsoftheState,itspowersweretoallintentsandpurposesunlimited….Twootherthingsareinterestingtonote:firstallitsmeetingsbeganwithprayerandasacrifice.Second,itwasatruedemocracy.Itstwogreatwatchwordswere“equality”(isonomia)and“freedom”(eleutheria).Itwasanassemblywhereeveryonehadanequalrightandanequaldutytotakepart.25

Tyndale’sotherrenderingshadpowerfulimplicationstoo.Forexample,theNewTestamenttaughtthat

everybelieverwasapriest;therefore,TyndaleusedthetermpriestonlyfortheOldTestamentJewishpriests.Christianleaderswere“presbyters”—pastors,shepherds,elders,orbishopsofthepeople—whoderivedtheirearthlyauthorityfromthecongregation,notfromahierarchywithanultimateseatinRome.ThedemocraticethosofTyndale’sNewTestamentwasathreat,notmerelytotheRomanCatholic

Church, but also to the monarchy. Consequently, England’s kings began to take an active interest inoverseeingBibletranslations.Tyndalewasarrested,tried,andcondemned.Hismartyrdommarkedthedeathofthemedievalworld

andthebeginningofthemodern.Althoughwedonothavethedetailsofhismartyrdom,thescenecanbere-createdbasedontheaccountsofsimilardeaths:

OnthemorningofOctober6,1536,atVilvorde,Belgium,alargecrowdgathersbehindabarricade.Inthemiddleofthecircularspace,twogreatbeamsareraisedintheformofacross,withironchainsandaropeofhemppassingthroughholesinthebeamsatthetop.Brushwood,straw,andlogsareheapedreadynearby.TheProcuratorGeneral(theemperor’sattorney)andhiscolleaguesareseatedonspeciallypreparedhighchairswithinthecircle.Outsideofthecircle,onatallplatform,somebishopsareseated.Apriestinchainsisbroughttothebishops.Theprosecutorcondemnshimas“WilliamTyndale—arch-heretic.”

As evidence of his guilt, a copy of Tyndale’s New Testament is given to the presiding bishop. Articles of guilt are read. The

anointing oil is symbolically scraped from Tyndale’s hands; the bread and wine of the Mass are placed on his hands and quicklyremoved.Hispriestlyvestmentsareceremoniallystrippedaway.AsTyndaleishandedovertotheguards,thebishopbeginstoturnthepagesoftheNewTestament.

Thecrowdispartedtolettheguardsbringtheprisonerthroughthebarricade.Astheyapproachthecross,theprisonerisallowedto

pray.Alastappealismadeforhimtorecant.Thenhealonemovestothecross.Theguardskneeltotiehisfeettothebottomofthecross.Aroundhisneckthechainispassed,withthehempennoosehangingslack.Thebrushwood,straw,andlogsarepackedcloseroundtheprisoner,makingasortofhutwithhiminside.Theexecutionergoestostandbehindthecross,andlooksattheProcuratorGeneral.Tyndalecriesoutaloudprayer:“Lord,openthekingofEngland’seyes!”

TheProcuratorGeneralgivesthesignal.Theexecutionerquicklytightensthehempennoose,stranglingTyndale.TheProcurator

GeneralwatchesTyndaledie,thenreachesforalightedwaxtorchbeingheldnearhim.Hetakesitandhandsittotheexecutioner,whotouchesoffthestrawandbrushwood.

AsTyndale’sbodyburns,thecrowdcheers.ThebishopwalkstothefireandthrowstheNewTestamentintoit.Littledoeshe

realizethatTyndale’sprayerhasbeenheard.

The eyes of the king of England were opened shortly after Tyndale’s execution. Tyndale’s words,incorporatedintovariousversionsoftheBible,werereadinEnglishchurchesandaroundtheworld.Their authority superseded the authority of the popes. Tyndale’s words shaped the language ofShakespeare,sparkedrevolutionsinEnglandandAmerica,democratizednations,andusheredinanewcivilizationwhererightbecamesuperiortomight.

THEGENEVABIBLETyndale’stranslationoftheBiblethreatenedthehierarchicalorganizationofmedievalsociety.That

threat became particularly potent a few decades later after the Geneva Bible incorporated much ofTyndale’stranslation.KingEdwardVI,whoreignedfrom1547to1553,wassympathetictoProtestantismandappointed

reformerslikeMartinBucertoCambridgeandOxford.Upontheking’sdeathin1553,MaryTudor,whobecame known as “Bloody Mary,” reigned from 1553 to 1558. She reversed the official policy andbroughtEnglandbackunder thepapacy.ShemarriedPhilip II, thekingofSpain, in1554andbeganpersecutionofProtestantsinEngland.MaryhadapproximatelythreehundredProtestantsmurdered.SomewhoescapedendedupinGeneva,anindependentcity-stateunderJohnCalvin’steachingand

moral influence. Among these refugees were William Whittingham, who later married John Calvin’ssister; Anthony Gilby; Thomas Sampson; Miles Coverdale; John Knox; and Laurence Tomson. ThesescholarsproducedthefirstProtestantStudyBible,theGenevaBible,in1560.ItincorporatedmostofTyndale’slabor.Itexcelledasanaccuratetranslationwithillustrations,maps,prefaces,andstudynotesthatexplainedthe“hardplaces.”By1600,theGenevaBiblehadbecometheBibleofchoiceforEnglish-speakingProtestants.Itposeda

greaterthreattomonarchythanTyndale’sNewTestament,becauseitnotonlyfollowedhistraditionbutalsoaddedmarginalnotes.TyndalehadexplanatorynotesinthemarginsofhisfirstNewTestament,buthisfirstattempttopublishthattranslationwithnoteshadtobeabortedafterprintingthefirsttwenty-twochaptersofthegospelofMatthew.Tyndalenarrowlyescapedgettingcaught.InhissecondandsuccessfulattempttoprinttheNewTestament,Tyndaledeletednotestokeepthe

edition small—easier for smuggling across the channel into England. The Geneva Bible reintroducednotes—somewereTyndale’s,butmostwereauthoredbyGenevaReformers,includingtheprominentJohnKnox—toexpoundtheBible’snonhierarchical,egalitarianethosoffreedom.Dr.McGrathexplainedthesignificanceoftheGenevaBible:

[O]fficial opposition to the Geneva Bible could not prevent it from becoming the most widely read Bible of the Elizabethan, andsubsequentlytheJacobean,era.Itmayneverhavesecuredofficialsanction,yet itneedednosuchendorsementbythepoliticalorreligiousestablishmenttogainenthusiasticandwidespreadacceptance.EventhoughthebookinitiallyhadtobeimportedfromGeneva—Englishprintingsoftheworkhavingbeenprohibitedbynervousbishops—itstilloutsolditsrivals.26

Formorethanahundredyears,theGenevaBibledominatedtheEnglish-speakingworld.ItwastheBibleused by Shakespeare. The King James Bible was published in 1611, but it took fifty years for it tosupplanttheGenevaBible.ThePilgrimsandPuritanscarriedtheGenevaBibletotheshoresoftheNew

World,whereAmericancolonistswererearedonit.27

THEKINGJAMESBIBLEKingJamesIopposedthePuritanswhochampionedtheGenevaBible.Heupheldthedoctrineofthe

divinerightofkings,whichtheGenevaBiblechallenged.Hisbeliefsclashedwiththebiblicalideaofhuman equality, promoted by the Reformers. Before becoming the king of England, James reigned inScotland, and during a heated encounter, a leader of the Scottish Reformation, Andrew Melville,physicallytook

holdofJames,andaccusedhimofbeing“God’ssillyvassal.”MelvillepointedlydeclaredthatwhiletheywouldsupportJamesaskinginpublic,inprivatetheyallknewperfectlywellthatChristwasthetruekinginScotland,andhiskingdomwasthekirk—akingdominwhichJameswasameremember,nota lordorhead.Jameswasshakenbythisphysicalandverbalassault,not leastbecauseitsuggestedthatMelvilleandhisalliesposedasignificantthreattotheScottishthrone.28

JameshadopposedPuritanismbeforebecoming thekingofEngland. In1598hewrote twobooks

defendingthedivinerightofkings,TheTrueLawofFreeMonarchsandBasilikonDoron. InAlisterMcGrath’swords,

JamesIheldthatkingshadbeenordainedofGodtorulethenationsoftheworld,topromotejustice,andtodispensewisdom.Itwas,therefore,imperativethatkingsshouldberespectedandobeyedunconditionallyandinallcircumstances.TheamplenotesprovidedbytheGenevaBibletaughtotherwise.Tyrannicalkingsshouldnotbeobeyed;indeed,therewereexcellentreasonforsuggestingthattheyshouldbeoverthrown.29

Forexample,themarginnotesforDaniel6:22implythatthecommandsofkingsaretobedisobeyediftheyconflictwiththelawofGod.

Forhe[Daniel]disobeyedtheking’swickedcommandmentinordertoobeyGod,andsohedidnoinjurytotheking,whooughttocommandnothingbywhichGodwouldbedishonored.30

ThenotesforDaniel11:36indicatethatthedaysofoppressivetyrantsarenumbered.ThePuritansweresufferingfortheirsins,buttheirsufferingwouldnotlastforever.

SolongthetyrantswillprevailasGodhasappointedtopunishhispeople:butheshowsthatitisbutforatime.31

McGrathwrote:“NoticealsohowtheGenevannotesregularlyusetheword‘tyrant’torefertokings;theKingJamesBibleneverusesthisword—afactnotedwithapprovalasmuchasreliefbymanyroyalistsatthispoint.”32KingJamesauthorizedafreshtranslationoftheBibletounderminetherepublicanimplicationsofthe

GenevaBible.ThatversionisfamousastheKingJamesVersionoftheBible.Itincorporatedabout90percentofTyndale’sNewTestamentandasmuchoftheOldTestamentthatTyndalehadtranslatedbeforegettingcaught.

BiblicalreformsdidnotstopintheWest.AsthechurchstartedstudyingtheBible,manyrealizedthatGodwantedtoblessallthenationsoftheearththatsufferbecausetheydonotknowthetruth.33BelieverswhowantedtoserveGodresolvedtomaketheBibleavailabletoeveryoneintheirnativelanguage.Theybelieved that as people came to know the truth, the truth would set them free.34 At the dawn of the

nineteenthcentury,thatbeliefinspiredhistory’sgreatestmovementtotranslateandpublishtheBibleinevery language of the world. The translators had to turn oral dialects into literary languages. In theprocess,theselinguistsbuilttheintellectualbridgesoverwhichmodernideascouldtravelfromtheWesttotherestoftheworld.Thatiswhatwenowcall“globalization”—thesubjectofthenextchapter.WhattheChurchdidtoopposetheBiblewasterrible.ButalthoughmostoftheChurchisnolongera

persecutor,oppositiontotheBiblehasnotended.TheprevioustwocenturieshaveseenequallyfierceattacksontheBible,andnotjustinMarxist,Muslim,orHinducountries.Thisbookbeganinresponsetoone such attack by Arun Shourie. The Bible remains a threat to those who want man’s authority tosupersedeGod’s,tothosewhowanttopreserveoppressiveculturesbasedonfalsehoodandsin.Mr.ShouriewasrightinseeingtheBibleasthemostdangerousintellectualchallengetoHindutva.WesternintellectualswhowantmantobethemeasureofallthingsarealsorightinseeingtheBibleasathreat.TheBibleclaimstobeGod’sWord.Andthatimpliesthatwords,values,andbeliefswillharmusiftheyarenotinalignmentwithwhatourheavenlyFatherhassaidistrueandgood.*Theearliertranslation,inspiredbyJohnWycliffe,precededtheinventionoftheprintingpressintheWest.**ThepresentcathedralwasbuiltbySirChristopherWrenintheseventeenthcentury.Fourearlierchurches/cathedralshadbeenbuiltonthesamesitesinceAD604.* In theory, it was possible to own a copy legally, after obtaining a bishop’s permission. In practice, the permission was never given.Nevertheless,twohundredmanuscriptsoftheWycliffeBiblearestillinexistence.*Theterm“democratic”inthiscontextisusedincontrasttothehierarchicnatureoftheChurchgovernmentasitdevelopedintheRomanCatholic Church, not in the modern sense of democratic church government as developed by the Presbyterians after the ProtestantReformation.**SeethestoryofJohnAmosComeniusinchapter12asasplendidexception.***Wycliffe’serawasanexception.Tworivalpopesfoughtbitterly.Forabriefperiod,athirdpopemadethewatersmuddier.TheirrivalrywasanimportantfactorinsavingWycliffefrombeingburnedatthestakeasaheretic.Hediedinhishomeandwasdeclaredahereticalmosttwodecadeslater.Thenhisbonesweredugoutandburned,andtheasheswerethrownintheSwiftRiver.*Universities,likemonasteriesandotherreligiousorders,hadadegreeofautonomyas“tradeunions”ofeitherstudents(Bologna)orthefaculty(Oxford).Assuch,theygovernedthemselves,butunderthechurch’soverallauthority.Thebishoplicensedprofessors,andtheChurchcouldburnanyofthemforheresy.*ReformandReformerswithacapitalRrefertothepioneersandleadersoftheProtestantReformation,includingLuther’spredecessors,suchasWycliffeandHus.*Seechapter8onheroism.

PartV

THEINTELLECTUALREVOLUTION

InLincoln’sCommunityofProtestantsthesupremacyoftheBibleasthebookofdailylifeencouragedacquiringbasicreadingskills…WordsandideaswereinseparableinanationinwhichtheBibledominated.Itwasgivenfullcurrencyasthesourceofthedominantbeliefsystem.Itwasalsothegreatbookofillustrativestories,illuminatingreferences,andpithymaximsforeverydayconduct.Morethananyotherglue,itheldthesocietytogether…Assix-year-old

AbrahamLincolnbegantolearntoread,hishouseholdtextwastheBible.—FREDKAPLAN,LINCOLN:TheBiographyofaWriter

ChapterTen

LANGUAGES

HOWWASINTELLECTUALPOWERDEMOCRATIZED?

British prime minister Margaret Thatcher was too conservative to endear herself to the mainstreammedia.Thefollowingstatementfromaspeechin1988illustrateshowpoliticallyincorrectshewas.ThetruthofhercommentsbegantobeconsideredonlyafterBritish-bornand-educatedterroristsbegantothreatenBritain.Speakingwithahumilityunusualforheadsofstate,shesaid,

WeareanationwhoseidealswerefoundedontheBible.Alsoitisquiteimpossibletounderstandourliteraturewithoutgraspingthisfact.ThatisthestrongpracticalcaseforensuringthatchildrenatschoolaregivenadequateinstructioninthepartwhichtheJudaeo-Christiantraditionhasplayedinmouldingourlaws,mannersandinstitutions.HowcanyoumakesenseofShakespeareandSirWalterScott,oroftheconstitutionalconflictsoftheseventeenthcenturyinbothScotlandandEngland,withoutsuchfundamentalknowledge?ButIwouldgofurtherthanthis.ThetruthsoftheJudaeo-Christiantraditionareinfinitelyprecious,notonly,asIbelieve,becausetheyaretrue,butalsobecausetheyprovidethemoralimpulsewhichalonecanleadtothatpeace,inthetruemeaningoftheword,forwhichwealllong…thereislittlehopefordemocracyiftheheartsofmenandwomenindemocraticsocietiescannotbetouchedbyacalltosomethinggreaterthanthemselves.Politicalstructures,stateinstitutions,collectiveidealsarenotenough…[Democracyrequires]thelifeoffaith…asmuchtothetemporalastothespiritualwelfareofthenation.1

WhatroledidtheBibleplayincreatingEnglishlanguage,literature,andculture,includingthevery

notionsofnation,nation-state,andnationalism?Americansstilltoleratepatriotism,butnationalism isadirtywordformostpeoplewhograduated

fromasecularcollegeduringthepreviousthreedecades.Whetheritisavirtueoravice,itishelpfultounderstandthatontheworldstagetheissueofnationalismisarecentphenomenon.IftheBritishprimeministerdiedinoffice,wouldtheBritishpeopleasktheFrench,theGermans,ortheDutchtosendthemaprimeminister?ThatwouldbeinconceivableeventhoughBritainisapartoftheEuropeanUnion.Likeothernations,theBritishwantoneoftheirownpeopletoleadthem.Atdifferentpointsintheirhistory,however,theBritishinvitedaDutchmonarch,WilliamIII,anda

German aristocrat, George I, to become their kings. Why would they have even allowed—let alonerequested—a foreign monarch to take power? Because Europe was an empire—Christendom—andreligionwasmoreimportantthannationalism.Theinterestsofaninternationalfraternityofclericsandaristocratssupersededthoseofindividualnations.InthewakeoftheReformation,itwastheBiblethatreorganizedEuropeasmodernnation-states.DevelopingvernacularsthroughBibletranslationwasonlythefirst step toward linguistic nation-states.The Biblealso provided the theological justification forfightingtobuildindependentnation-statessuchasHolland.

LATIN

JesuswasaJewandtaughtmostlytoJews.Yet,accordingtomostbiblicalscholars,hispublicspeecheswerenotinHebrew,thenasacredbutdeadlanguage.HetaughtinAramaic,whichhadbeenthelanguageofthepeoplelivinginPalestinesincetheBabylonianexile.WhenhisdiscipleswrotetheNewTestament,theyfollowedtheprincipleofusingthevernacular—that

is, the native language of the people they were trying to reach. They wrote the Scriptures in Koine(commonGreek),atradelanguagespokenthroughouttheRomanEmpire.Twocenturiesearlier,seventyJewishscholarshadmadetheSeptuagintGreektranslationoftheHebrewScriptures.Gradually,LatinreplacedGreekasthevernacularoftheempire.FollowingJesusandhisapostles,the

ChristianscholarSt.JeromeundertookthearduoustaskoftranslatingtheentireBiblefromHebrewandGreekintoLatin.HebelieveditwasessentialforpeopletohavetheScripturesintheirownlanguage.HefinishedtheprojectinAD405,andhistranslationbecameknownastheVulgatebecauseitwaswritteninthe“vulgar”orcommonlanguageofthepeople.Soon afterward, the Roman Empire collapsed and gradually Latin became a dead language. The

languages of the European peoples continued to change through conquest, migration, mingling, andlinguisticevolution.Butforathousandyears,nobodyafterJeromebotheredtotranslatetheBibleintothedialectsofthepeopleofEngland.AlackofeconomicpatronageforvernacularliteracyreinforcedLatin’smonopoly.Amoreimportant

reason,however,wasthesnobberyoftheeducated.Theybelievedthatvernacularsofthecommonmenwereoflittlevalueandthatseriousstudy,jurisprudence,andliteraturecouldonlyhappeninLatin.Whyshouldanyonelearntoreadalanguageinwhichnoonewrites?Asaconsequence,inordertoread,onehadtolearnLatin.This meant that only the aristocracy or the clergy could become educated. The time and expense

requiredtoeducatepeopleinLatinwasprohibitiveformostfamilies.Printingdidnotexistandstudentshadtocopytheirowntextbooksonexpensiveparchmentpaper.Findingteacherswasnoteasyeither.MostmenandwomenwhowerecapableofteachingLatinhadtakenmonasticorclericalordersintheChurch. Their spiritual, scholastic, and ecclesiastical duties did not leave time for teaching. ThislinguisticcastesystemstrengthenedtheChurch’spoweroverEurope,butitkeptEuropeweak.TheintellectualandreligiouselitedidnotbelievethataprofoundbooksuchastheBiblecouldbe

translatedintothedialectsofpeasants.Inanycase,thepeasantswereilliterate,andtheirdialectshadnowritten form. These were some of the factors that made translators such as Luther and Tyndalerevolutionaryreformers.Theydemocratizedlanguage.Takingknowledgethatbelongedonlytotheelite,theygaveittothemasses.TheirrevolutionwentontotransformthewayEuropeansunderstoodtheroleofthenation-stateandtheroleofthemassesingovernmentaffairs.Thesetranslator-reformersfollowedJesus’exampleinusingthelanguagesofthepeople.Theyfostered

anenvironmentinwhichEurope’smodernlanguagescoulddevelopandflourish.TranslatingtheBibleintovernacularsofGerman,French,andEnglish,theydugtheintellectualtunnelthroughwhichspiritualandsecularknowledgecouldflow.ItempoweredpeoplewhohadbeenignoredandoppressedbytheLatin-speakingelite.WhenEuropeansbecameliterate,theonlybookmostfamiliesownedwastheBible,anditbecamethe

sourceoftheirlanguageandtheirworldview.Theideaof“governmentofthepeople,forthepeople,bythepeople”becamepossibleonlybecausethepeople’smothertonguebecamethelanguageoflearningandgoverning.Thecommonman,whoformerlyhadnoknowledgeofgovernmentandlegalaffairs,couldnowparticipate innationaldebatesanddecisionmaking.Likewise, themodernfree-marketeconomy,whichallowseveryonetofreelycontributetheirpotentialforeveryone’sgood,becamepossiblebecausethe languages of the people became strong enough to be the languages of law, technology, and themarketplace.

TRANSFORMINGINDIA—ABRIEFCASESTUDY

My personal interest in the Bible and its translation into the vernacular did not come from what itaccomplishedinEurope,butfromwhatitaccomplishedinIndia.IgrewupintheheartofHindi-land,in

Allahabad,barelyfiftymilesfromKashi,whereTulsidaswroteNorthIndia’smostimportantreligiousepic,Ramcharitmanas.Iwasalwaystoldthatmymothertongue,Hindi,cameoutofhisgreatepic.WhenIstartedreadingtheclassic,IwaspuzzledbecauseIcouldn’tunderstandasinglesentence.Theauthor’s“Hindi”wascompletelydifferentfrommine,anditcausedmetoponder:Whereexactlydidmymothertongue—ournationallanguage—comefrom?Iwassurprisedtodiscoverthattwohundredyearsearlier,whentheBritishbegantoruleNorthIndia,

ourcourtlanguagewasneitherHindinorUrdu.BeforetheBritish,Muslimshadruledourlandandtheywerenotinterestedinourdialects.Norweretheyinterestedintheprimitivelanguageofthethirteenth-centuryMuslimpoetAmirKhusro.Theythoughthehadcorruptedtheirclassicallanguages,ArabicandPersian,bymixingindialectsaroundDelhi.IttookthelaborsofaBritishBibletranslator,Rev.HenryMartyn(1781–1812),toforgethosedialectsintoaliterarylanguage,modernUrdu.ForawhileitservedastheofficiallanguageofmystateofUttarPradeshbeforeretreatingtobecomethenationallanguageofPakistan.Likewise,HinduscholarsdidnotdevelopIndia’snationallanguage,Hindi.Bibletranslatorssuchas

ReverendGilchristandmissionary-linguistssuchasReverendKelloggmadethedialectofpoetTulsidas(AD1532–1623)thebasefordevelopingmodernHindiasaliterarylanguage.Sanskrit could have been the court language of pre-British India, but it wasn’t. Sanskrit is India’s

nationaltreasure.Butthosewhohadthekeytotheintellectualtreasurewouldnotshareitevenwiththeirown women, let alone with non-Brahmin males. The Brahmins’ religion required them to treat theirneighborsasuntouchables.Sanskritwasusedasameanstokeeppeopleatadistancefromknowledgethatwaspower.Ashoka(304–232BC),India’sgreatestBuddhistruler,usedthePalilanguageandBrahmiscriptto

spreadhiswisdomthroughoutIndia.ItbecamethelanguageofBuddhistlearning.Yet,atthedawnofthenineteenthcentury,IndiadidnothaveevenonescholarwhocouldreadasinglesentenceinscribedontheAshokapillarsfoundthroughoutIndia.Worse—theantihistoricnatureofHinduismhadensuredthatforcenturiesnoIndianhadevenheardAshoka’snameuntilthe1830swhenanAnglo-Indiascholar,JamesPrinsep,foundthekeytoreadingBrahmiscriptonthepillars.Ashoka’s efforts to unify geographic India by promoting one script, language, and wisdom were

magnificent.Whydidtheyfail?PersecutionbytheBrahminswasafactor,butthatdoesnotexplainwhyBrahmiscriptbecameextinct.Ashoka’sreligiousphilosophyworkedagainsthissocialagendathatcouldhavemadeIndiaagreat,unifiednationbuiltbygreatliterature.TheBuddha,aswehaveseen,taughtthattheUltimateRealitywasSilence,orShoonyta.Thehuman

mind was a product ofAvidhya (Primeval Ignorance). It was not made in the image of God; humanlanguage, logic, and words had no correlation with Truth. The way to Enlightenment was throughemptyingone’smindofallwordsandthoughts.ThegoalwastoreachabsoluteSilence.Therefore,theBuddhistmonksbarelystudiedtheirownscriptures.Theyhadnoreligiousmotivationtotakethetroubleto turn their neighbors’ dialects into literary languages to make the Buddha’s thought accessible toeveryone.Themonks’missionwastopropagatemeditationtechniquestoemptyeveryone’smindsofallthought.Theywerenotouttofillmindswithgreatideas.IwasutterlysurprisedtolearnthatwhentheBritishRaj(theBritishIndianEmpire)beganinNorth

India,ourcourtlanguagewasPersian!MogulemperorHumayunhadwonbackhisfather’skingdomwiththe help of fourteen thousand Persian soldiers. His son Akbar (AD 1556–1605), the greatest Mogulemperor,patronizedIndianartistsandwriters,includingthosewhowroteinoldHindi.Healsopromotedhisreligiouslanguage,Arabic,butherealizedtherewasnolanguagethathecouldusetogovernIndia.HekeptPersianashiscourtlanguage.PersiandidforMogulswhatSanskritdidforBrahmins.ItexcludedmostIndiansfrompower.Onewaytokeepgovernmentoftherulers,fortherulers,andbytherulersistorunitinalanguagenotunderstoodbytheruled.

Intheeighteenthcentury,whentheBritishstartedgoverningIndia,theyfacedthissamecommunicationproblem. Their situation was worse, because unlike the Moguls who had settled in India, individualEnglishrulerscametoIndiafortheshortterm.TheEastIndiaCompany,whichruledthesubcontinent,wasacommercialcompany.Itsgovernorswere interested incuttingexpenses,notwastingmoneyonnoncommercialprojectslikedevelopingdialects.Colonialismdidnotcultivatethevernaculars.TheBritishEastIndiaCompanyneededIndianservantswhospokealittleEnglish.AfewEnglishmen,

called Classists, promoted Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian. Neither Classists nor the Company had aninterestineducatingaclassofIndianswhowouldenrichIndianvernaculars,educatethemasses,andprepareIndiaforlibertyandself-government.ThatwastheagendaofthefollowersofJesusChristwhosoughttoobeythecommandtolovetheirneighborsasthemselves.OneonlyneedstoreadthewritingsofBritishmemberofparliamentCharlesGrant(1792);neo-HindureformerRajaRammohunRoy(1823);ScottishmissionaryAlexanderDuff(1830);andBritishcivilservantsCharlesTrevelyan(1834and’38)and his brother-in-law Lord Macaulay (1835) to realize that these men opposed the Classists andchampionedEnglishonlyasthebestmeanstoenrichIndianvernaculars.HinduintellectualswhohaveonlyreadexcerptsfromRammohunRoyandLordMacaulayassumethat

thesemenpromotedEnglishtocolonize,notliberate,theIndianmind.*ButMahatmaGandhi(aBritish-educated Gujarati) and Rabindranath Tagore (a Bengali-speaking scholar of English) understoodMacaulayandChristianmissionaries.Thetwoofthemmettogetherinthe1920sanddecidedthatHindi,notSanskrit,notEnglish,hadtobeIndia’sfuture.Inorder togiveusournational language,missionariesstruggledagainst theEast IndiaCompany’s

commercial interests. Rev. John Borthwick Gilchrist (1759–1841) worked for the company at FortWilliamCollege,Calcutta,India.Hedeveloped“TablesandPrinciples”ofHindustaniinhissparetimeandsubmittedthemtothecollegecouncilforpublicationonJune6,1802.OnJune14thecouncilnotonlyreturnedhisworkbutprohibitedhimfrompublishingit.GilchristpersistedinpromotingthecauseofHindustaniatgreatpersonalcost.Hindustani is the root of Hindi as well as Urdu. Rev. Claudius Buchanan (1766–1815), the vice-

provostoftheFortWilliamCollege,recordedthepioneeringeffortofRev.HenryMartyninenhancingHindustanitothepositionthatitcouldgivetoIndiaandPakistanournationallanguages:

TheRev.HenryMartyn,B.D.FellowofSt.John’sCollege,Cambridge,wentouttoIndiaaboutfiveyearsago…Afteracquiringthehighestacademicalhonoursinscience,andajustcelebrityforclassicalknowledge,hedevotedhimselftotheacquirementoftheArabicandHindostaneeLanguages…thegrandworkwhichhadchieflyengagedtheattentionofthisOrientalScholar,duringthelastfouryears,ishisTranslationofthewholeBibleintotheHindostaneeLanguage…Hischiefdifficultyisinsettlingtheorthographyofthelanguage,andinascertainingwhatproportionofwordsoughttobeadmittedfromthePersianandArabicfountains;fortheHindostaneeisyet inits infancy,asawrittenandgrammaticaltongue;andit isprobablethatMr.Martyn’sworkwillcontributemuchtofixitsstandard.2

DecadesofsacrificialservicebyBibletranslatorsmadeitpossiblefortheBritishgovernmenttoagree

tomakingHindustanitheircourtlanguageatthelowerlevelsofadministration.ThismeantthatapeasantcouldnowgotoaBritishcourtinNorthIndiaandunderstandtheprosecutor,witnesses,andlawyerswhoarguedhiscaseandthejudgewhopasseddowntheruling.Bibletranslators’laboralsomadeitpossibleforagiftedIndianwritertowriteinalanguagethatordinaryIndianscouldunderstand.Gandhi and Tagore were not the first to see that India’s future lay in Hindi. British bureaucracy

preferred Urdu for decades because, even at the end of the nineteenth century, “Hindi” was not onelanguage.EveryNorthIndiancityspokeadifferentdialect.PeopleinmyhometownAllahabaddidnotunderstand Tulsidas’s “Hindi,” although he lived in the next city—Benaras. This problematic literarysituationonlychangedafterRev.S.H.Kellogg,anAmericanmissionaryinAllahabad,coalescedmorethanadozendialectstohelpcreatetoday’sHindi.HeentitledhisHindiGrammar(still inuse)as,AGrammaroftheHindiLanguage:InWhichAreTreatedtheHighHindi,Braj,andtheEasternHindiof

theRamayanofTulsiDas,alsotheColloquialDialectsofRajputana,Kumaon,Avadh,Riwa,Bhojpur,Magadh,Maithilaetc.Inspiteofthebesteffortsoftranslatorsandadministrators,doubtsabouttheviabilityofHindiasa

nationallanguagepersistedintothetwentiethcentury.ItwasthelaboroftheKashiNagariPrachariniSabha3thatmadeitpossibleforournationalleaderstohavetheconfidencethatHindicouldbecomeournationallanguage.MostIndiansdonotknowthatthekeyfigurebehindtheworkoftheSabhawastheAmerican missionary Rev. E. Greaves in Benaras. Dr. Shyam Sunder Das, the editor of the Sabha’slandmarkHindiShabdSagar,recordedthefollowingtributetoGreavesinhispreface:

On 23 August 1907, the Society’s best wisher [not “well-wisher”] and enthusiastic member, Revd E. Greaves, proposed in theManagingCommitteeMeetingthattheSocietyshouldaccepttheresponsibilityofproducingacomprehensiveHindidictionary…Healsoshowedushowthiscouldbeaccomplished.4

Bible translators and missionaries did not merely give me my mother tongue, Hindi. Every living

literarylanguageinIndiaisatestimonytotheirlabor.In2005aMalyaleescholarfromMumbai,Dr.BabuVerghese,submittedaseven-hundred-pagedoctoralthesistotheUniversityofNagpur.*ItdemonstratedthatBibletranslators,usingthedialectsofmostlyilliterateIndians,createdseventy-threemodernliterarylanguages. These include the national languages of India (Hindi), Pakistan (Urdu), and Bangladesh(Bengali).FiveBrahminscholarsexaminedDr.Verghese’sthesisandawardedhimaPhDin2008.Theyalsounanimouslyrecommendedthathisthesis,whenpublishedasabook,shouldberequiredreadingforstudentsofIndianlinguistics.ThreeEnglishmissionaries—WilliamCarey,JoshuaMarshman,andWilliamWard—begantheworkof

learninghundredsofdialectsspokenbyilliterateIndiansinordertoturnthemintoseventy-threeliterarylanguagesandtocreatetheirgrammarsanddictionaries.TheimpactincreatingmodernSouthAsiawasbestsummarizedbyhistorianHughTinker:

AndsoinSerampore,onthebanksoftheHooghly,soonafter1800,theprincipalelementsinmodernSouthAsia—popularlinguisticidentification(“linguism”),thepress,theuniversity,socialconsciousness—allcametolight.TheWestandSouthAsiawereabouttocometogripswitheachotherintermsnotmerelyofpowerandprofit,butalsoofideasandprinciples.5

The Serampore Trio, as the missionaries were known, began with Bible translation and then

established the college that grew into Serampore University. They chose to use Bengali, rather thanEnglish, as the medium of instruction in their college, because the missionaries noticed that IndianfamilieswantedtheirchildrentolearnonlyenoughEnglishtogetajobwiththeEastIndiaCompany.ThemissionarieshadnotdedicatedtheirlivestoproducinggoodEnglish-speakingservantsfortheBritishRaj.TheywantedIndianstocometotheircollegetobegincultivatingtheirmindsandtheirspirits,toquestionthesocioeconomicdarknessaroundthem,toinquireandfindthetruththatliberatesindividualsandbuildsgreatnations.TheBibleteachesthattheCreatorgaveusthegiftoflanguagebecausehelovedus.Loveincludescommunication,andthecommunicationofgreatideasrequiresgreatlanguage.

THEBIBLEANDNATIONALISM

The Bible did far more than create the modern English, German, Dutch, Hindi, Urdu, and Bengalilanguages.Italsocreatedthemodernideaofthenation-stateandthevaluethatwecallnationalism.Nationalismhasacquiredabadnamebecauseoftheatrocitiesitinspiredduringthetwentiethcentury.

TheGermannationalismthatledtotwoworldwarswasasecularizedperversionofabiblicalvalue.DevoutRomanCatholicswhohatesecularnationalismbutdonotappreciatebiblicalnationalismhavefueledtherecentreactionagainstnationalismandtheyearningforaunitedcontinentinEurope.

AppreciatingnationalismiseasierforusinIndiaandPakistanbecauseallourliveswehavewitnessedShia-Sunniriots.WhydosomeMuslimsoccasionallykilltheirowncountrymenasareligiousduty?Eachriotisapparentlytriggeredbyapettyincident,buttheunderlyingreasonisthatloyaltytoone’snationandfellowcitizensisnotanIslamicvirtue.ForSunnis,theauthorityisMecca;forShiites,theauthority—theCaliphate—isinPersia.InBritainsomeMuslimsbelievethereisnoQur’anicwarranttovalueBritishnationalism.Infact,their

religiousdutyistobringEnglandunderSharialaw.ThisthreatwaspartofthesocialcontextofMrs.Thatcher’s speech quoted at the beginning of this chapter. There should be no doubt that her fear islegitimate.WithouttheBibleheruniversitieshavenophilosophicalfoundationsforbelievingintheveryideaofnation-states.Ontheotherhand,theyhaveverygoodhistoricalreasonsfordespising(secular)nationalismandreasonablepragmaticgroundsfortransferringfederalsovereigntytoaEuropeanUnion.The Reformation broke up the Holy Roman Empire into modern nation-states, often defined by

language.BeginningwithGenesis11,theBibleteachesthatnationsareaninventionofthesovereignGod.Althoughallhumanbeingscamefromonesetofparents, theywereseparatedintodifferent linguisticcommunitiesasaresultofhumansinfulness.Livinginaparticularnationcanbehellish,butsovereignnation-statesserveasabarriertoglobaltotalitarianism.TheapostlePaulsaidtotheAthenians,

Andhemadefromonemaneverynationofmankindtoliveonallthefaceoftheearth,havingdeterminedallottedperiodsandtheboundariesoftheirdwellingplace,thattheyshouldseekGod.6

JustasJesus,Peter,andPaulexperiencedtheoppressivenatureofEurope’s(Roman)imperialism,so

did the reformers such as Wycliffe, Hus, Luther, and Tyndale. It was easy for them to recognize thesignificanceoftheBible’steachingregardingnationalidentity.ThisconceptplaysapivotalroleintheBible’snarrativefromGenesisallthewaytothelastbookofRevelation.The narrative begins with God’s promise to make Abraham a great nation. The promise included

descendants,ownershipofaparticularland,authoritytogovern,andeconomicprosperitysubjecttohispeople obeying God’s law.7 God’s promise became the basis for his descendants’ attachment to thepromisedlandanditshistory.ItmadenationalismaspecialJewishvalue.TheOldTestamentisthehistoryoftwelvetribesbecomingonenation,underacommonlawoverseen

byelders,withorwithoutaking.Theking’sprimaryresponsibilitywastheircommondefense.PriestsandprophetshelpedelderskeepacheckonthekingthathelivedandoperatedunderGod’slaw.Whenthesetwelvepeople-groupsboundthemselvestogethertoobeyGod’sauthority,theyflourished.Whentribalism overrode national identity under one God and one law, they went into slavery. The OldTestamentinspiredHebrewtribestoliveasaunifiednationfollowingtheprinciplesofdivinejustice.IttaughtthemtotranscendtriballoyaltiesandworshiptheonetrueGodtogether,invitingallthenations—infact,allcreation—tojoininworshippinghim.Jewishnationalism,whichinspiredEnglishandIndianpoets,becameanexplicitpartofbiblicalpoetry

afterthesoutherntribes(Judah)weretakentoBabylonascaptives.OnecannotunderstandtheinfluenceofEnglishpoetslikeTennyson,Cowper,andBlakewithoutunderstandingJewishnationalism,expressedinthesepsalms:

YouwillariseandhavepityonZion[Jerusalem];itisthetimetofavorher;theappointedtimehascome.Foryourservantsholdherstonesdearandhavepityonherdust.8BythewatersofBabylon,therewesatdownandwept,whenwerememberedZion.

IfIforgetyou,OJerusalem,letmyrighthandforgetitsskill!Letmytonguesticktotheroofofmymouth,ifIdonotrememberyou,ifIdonotsetJerusalemabovemyhighestjoy!9

Byvirtueofbeingthetemple-city,JerusalembecamesacredfortheJews—God’scity.10BeingGod’scity,however,requiredthatitsinhabitantslivebyGod’slaw.Thefailuretodosobrought

forththeprophets’condemnationandGod’sjudgment.Thisgaveapeculiarflavortobiblicalpatriotism—loving one’s people and land was a reflection of God’s own loving heart for his people. BiblicalnationalismwasdifferentfromGermany’ssecularnationalism.TheformerwasGod-centeredratherthanculture-orrace-centered.BeingaproductofGod’spromiseandlaw,ithadtoremainself-criticalandrepentant. Old Testament characters like Moses, Daniel, Nehemiah, and several of the prophetspowerfullyexhibitedthispeculiar,repentantnationalism.Chapters6and9ofthebookofDanielarethebestexamplesofrepentantnationalism.Daniellovedhis

nationenoughtofastandprayforitsrebuilding.Heriskedbeingthrownintothelions’dentoprayforJerusalem’srestoration.TheBabylonianshaddestroyedhisholycity,buthenevercursedthem.Infact,hedevotedhislifetoservingNebuchadnezzar,theverykingwhorazedJerusalemtotheground.TheprophetJeremiah,aneyewitnesstoJerusalem’sdestruction,shapedDaniel’snationalism,telling

Danieltoservehisnation’s“enemies.”Jeremiah’sadvicetoDaniel’sfellowcaptivesinBabylonwastheoppositeofwhatsomemosquestodayteachinBritain.JeremiahaskedJewishexilesto“seekthewelfareofthecity[Babylon]whereIhavesentyouintoexile,andpraytotheLordonitsbehalf,forinitswelfareyouwillfindyourwelfare.”11Daniel’snationalismwasnotanexception.Nehemiahalsolovedhispeople,hisland,andhisruined

cityenoughtoriskhislifetorebuildthephysical,psychological,andmoralruinsofhisnation.ItwasthiskindofbiblicalnationalismthatinspiredEnglishpoets.TheyweredeeplycriticalofEngland’ssinsandyettheyyearnedtoseeitrebuiltasanewJerusalem.Inhispoem“England,”WilliamCowper(1731–1800) wrote: “England, with all thy faults, I love thee still.” William Blake’s (1757–1827) poem“Jerusalem” is still sung in English churches. He condemned England’s “dark satanic mills” butconcludedhispoemwitharesolvethatcamedirectlyfromthebookofNehemiah:

Iwillnotceasefrommentalfight,Norshallmyswordsleepinmyhand,TillwehavebuiltJerusalemInEngland’sgreenandpleasantland.

Nineteenth-centuryEuropesecularizedbiblicalnationalism.Thatledtoavoidablebloodshedandmadenationalismadirtyword.Abraham’sgreat-grandsonJosephlearnedthroughhislifeexperiencesthatGodchosehim(asanindividual)andhispeopletoblessallthenationsoftheworld.Hisfuturegenerationshadtofightbloodywars to taketheirpromisedlandandconsolidate theirfreedom.(TheBritish, theAmericans,andMahatmaGandhi’sfollowersalsofoughttowinorpreservetheirfreedom.)ButonceAbraham’s descendants obtained their land, their nationalism was no threat to other nations. TheybelievedinGod’ssovereigntyandthat,justasGodhadgiventheirlandtothem,hehadalsogivenlandstotheEdomites,Moabites,Ishmaelites,andAssyrians.AndAbraham’sdescendantsbelievedtheyhadbeenchosentoblessothernations,toservethemasGod’slight.Bycontrast,Germany’ssecularnationalismbecameathreattoallthenationsofEuropebecauseitwas

notbasedonabelief inGod’ssovereigntyasexpressedinPaul’s teachinginActs17:26–27.AlbertEinstein,aGermanJew,callednationalismadeadlydiseaseofinfantnationsbecauseheexperienced

arrogantnationalismthatkilledsixmillionofhispeople.Hisdenunciationofnationalismappliestothecounterfeit,secularizedversion.ItneglectsthefactthattheBible,whichinspiredtheEnglishnationalidentity,alsoinspiredinternationalhumansolidarity.TheJewishprophetsknewthatGod’spromisetoblesstheirnationwascontingentupontheirpeople

obeyingGod’slaw.TheirlovefortheirnationenabledthemtocritiquetheirowncultureandrulersinthelightofGod’shighermorallaw.Jewishrulerskilledmanyoftheirprophets,andtheyevencrucifiedtheirMessiah.ButtheOldTestamenthelpedtheWesttobecomeaself-criticalcultureinahealthyway.IttaughtWesterngovernmentstorespectthefreedomsoftheir“prophets”orwriterswhoexposecorruptionandcallforreform.Nonbiblicalculturespayonlylipservicetoafreepress.The British presence in India showed that British nationalism, when it was anchored in God’s

sovereignty,wasthesourceofahealthybalancebetweenloveforone’snationandinternationalconcern.Jesusdemonstratedthisbalance.Whilehecamefirstto“thelostsheepofthehouseofIsrael,”12healso

askedhisdisciplestogotoeverynationasmissionaries,beginningwiththeircapital,Jerusalem.13ThisteachinginspiredEnglishmenlikeWilliamCareytocometoIndiatoserve,educate,andliberateIndiansbyintroducingthebiblical-Europeanideasofnation-stateandnationalism.Indianpolytheismassumedthateachtribeandcastehadadistinctgod.Therefore,eachcastehadits

owndharma,orreligiousduty.TheycouldnotbeunitedasequalsbeforeonelawfromoneGodthatappliedequallytoeverypeoplegroup.Likemostothercultures,India’sreligiouscultureproducedneithernationalism nor internationalism. It had no sense of a global mission. In contrast, the Bible taughtmonotheism,theideathatthereisonlyoneGodforthewholeuniverseandthathelovesthewholeworld.HechoseAbrahamandhisdescendantsashisspecialpeople,butonlyinordertobless“allthenationsoftheearth”throughthem.14ForBibletranslatorssuchasWilliamCarey,thisbalancebetweennationalismandinternationalism

meantthattheycouldloveboththeirownnationandthecountrytowhichtheywerecalledtoserve.Innineteenth-centuryIndia,itmeantthatwhiletheemployeesoftheEastIndiaCompanymadetheirmoneyandwentbacktoEngland,missionariessuchasWilliamCareyspenttheirlivesandwealthinservicetoIndia.Polytheismdividespeoplefromoneanotheraccordingtotheirgodsandgoddesses.GeographicIndia

became vulnerable to colonization, first by Muslims and then by the Europeans, because HinduismweakenedtheHindus.ItdidnotembraceallHindusasequalcitizensofIndia.Thenon-Aryanswerecategorized as dasa, dasyu, asura, rakshasa, malichha (slaves, servants, demons, monsters,untouchables,etc.).Bible translators such as Carey, Buchanan, Martyn, and Gilchrist began to create a new national

identity for modern India. The Bible’s humble, repentant nationalism, balanced with a sense ofinternationalresponsibility,attractedHinduwriterssuchasMadhusudanDutttoChristandtoEngland.AftercomingtoChristin1843,DuttbecamefluentintenEuropeanandIndianlanguages.HereadMilton,Homer,Virgil,Dante,andTassointheiroriginallanguages.Later,undertheinfluenceofhismissionaryfriends, Dutt realized that even though his poetic hero Milton was the minister for Latin in OliverCromwell’s government, he wrote his poetry for the people in their still underdeveloped language,English.DuttrealizedthatifhereallywantedtofollowMilton,hewouldneedtowriteinBengali.Oneday,on

asuddenimpulseandencouragedbysomeofhisfriends’enthusiasmforBengalidrama,heturnedhishandtowritinginhismothertongue,givingupEnglishasavehicleforliteraryexpressionforgood—althoughwithgreatreluctance.Dutt’sturntohisvernacularusheredintheBengalinationalistmovement.Heusedhispoetrytogive

voicetohisloveforBengal.“LightupBengal,India’sjewelmayshebide!”15heprayed,applyingthe

spiritofEnglishpoetrytoIndia.Throughhispoetry,BengaldidgoontobecomeIndia’sjewel,givinglead to the Indian Renaissance. Bengal became the birthplace of Indian nationalism, revivalism, andreformism.ItproducedmostofIndia’searlyreformers,litterateurs,nationalists,andintellectuals.“WhyhasProvidencegiventhisqueenly,thismajesticlandforapreyandaspoiltotheAnglo-Saxon?”askedDutt. And he answered, because “it is the mission of the Anglo-Saxon to renovate, to regenerate, toChristianizetheHindu—tochurnthisvastoceanthatitmayrestorethethingsofbeautynowburiedinitsliquidwilderness.”16As my nation’s linguistic engagement with Christian nations illustrates, nationalism need not be a

disease.WhenyokedtothereformingpoweroftheBible,itcanbecomeapowerfulredemptiveforce.IndiasufferedunderMuslimandEuropeandominationforninecenturies,butinthatentiretimenooneunited us with a sense of national identity. Nor did anyone unleash the energy to overcome foreigndomination. India did not produce a Gandhi under the Moguls. Hindu military generals sustained theMogulempire.OnlywhenBible translatorsbegandevelopingour languagesdidbiblical ideasbeginsweepingthroughourland.AsitdidinEurope,theBibleempoweredourpeoplebycultivatinganationalistconsciousness.Our

nationalleaders,suchasGandhiandNehru,providedleadershiptothenationalistmovement,buttheywould have had no “nation” to lead without the biblical idea of nation that came to us through thelinguistic revolution initiated by Bible translation and English literature introduced by Christianeducation.BeforeexamininghowtheBiblecreatedmoderneducation,letusreviewitsimpactonliterature.

*Forexample,thisisoneofArunShourie’smisinformedattacksonMacaulay.*TheImpactofBibleTranslationonIndianLanguages—AStudy.

ChapterEleven

LITERATURE

WHYDIDPILGRIMSBUILDNATIONS?

KhushwantSingh(b.1915)isasecularSikhandoneofIndia’sbest-knownwriters.FordecadeshealsotaughtEnglishliteratureatDelhiUniversity.HehasoftensaidthathereadsatleasttwochaptersoftheBibleeveryday,becausenoonecanunderstandEnglishliteraturewithoutfirstreadingtheBible.The Bible is just as necessary to understand the literature written during the nineteenth and early

twentieth centuries in India, a period often referred to as the “Indian Renaissance.” One could, forexample,readanypoemfromGitanjaliinaChristianchurchwithoutanyonesuspectingthattheBengalipoet,Nobel laureateRabindranathTagore(1861–1941),wasnotaChristian.TheIndianRenaissancetriggeredvariousreformmovementsandbeginningwithMadhusudanDuttcreatedIndiannationalism.AsapartofEurope,Englandinheritedgreatbooks,epics,andmythsfromtheGreco-Romanera.But

arguably,noneofthisliteratureexertedthesameinfluenceonEnglishwritersasdidtheBible—anAsianbook.TheBible’sdirectandindirectinfluenceonEnglishliteratureoutstripsHomer’sinfluenceonthedevelopmentofGreekandLatinliterature.RuthapRoberts,aCanadianexpertonVictorianliterature,agreedwithKhushwantSinghwhenshesaid,“VirtuallyallwritersofEnglishdrawontheBible,andthemorememorableonesarethegreatrecyclersofbiblicalelements.”1Homer’s heroes were exciting. They were terrifying when armed with weapons. They were

entertaining, but readers could not follow these heroes in efforts to build great and free nations. Incontrast,Bunyan’sfalteringPilgrimstartedoutwithnothingbuttheburdenofsinonhisbackandaBibleinhishands.Thousandsofpreacherstalkedabouthim.Hundredsofmillionsofreadersmeditatedonhimandsangabouthisquest,andmanybecamepilgrimsthemselves.TheBiblehasexerciseduniqueauthorityoverEuropeanliteraturebecauseitisdifferentfromallother

stories.Firstofall,ithasaringoftruth.TraditionascribesMosesastheprincipalauthorofGenesis,thefirstbookoftheBible.ButMoseswasbornaroundfourhundredyearsafterJoseph,whosenarrativeconcludesGenesis.Theauthordidnotknowthepeoplehewroteabout.Hetalkedtonoeyewitnesses.Hehadnoprimarysources thatweknowof toexamine.AndhemakesnoclaimresemblingtheProphetMuhammad’s that an angel appeared to him in a prophetic trance and revealed the stories to him.Therefore, theheroesandeventsdescribed inGenesiscouldbecalled“legends”handeddownfromgenerationtogeneration.Thisoraltraditionhadplentyoftimeforgiftedstorytellerstoembellishit.Yetnooneturnedtheminto

anythinglikeIndianorGreekepics.Brillianteditorscouldhaveusedthosecenturiestorefineandpolishthenarratives,forGenesisissuperblycrafted.Whydidn’tastorytellerturnhisancestorsAbraham,Isaac,Jacob,andJosephintoheroeslikeAchillesorOdysseus?Abraham did fight and win one battle against four kings who had beaten five kings and taken his

nephewcaptive.YetGenesissaysnothingabouthisbravery,prowess,militarystrategy,orskillwitharms.NordoesitsayanythingaboutGodperformingamiracletohelphimwinthatbattle.Thenarrativeappearsmundane.ItspointistoshowAbraham’sloyaltytohisratherselfishnephewandhisintegrityin

refusingtokeephisneighbors’goodsthatherecoveredinbattle.One-tenthwasgiventothekingofSalem(laterJerusalem),whofedhismen,andtherestwasreturnedtoitsrightfulowners.TheBiblesuggests thatAbraham’sheroismconsistedofbeingasimple,fearfulmanwhobelieved

God’spromiseandobeyedhim.WhenIfirstreadGenesisasanadult,IwasshockedbythetimidityofAbrahamandhissonIsaac.Theyweresoafraidoflawlessmenaroundthemthattheydescribedtheirwives as their “sisters.” One petty king, Abimelech, took Abraham’s word at face value and herdedAbraham’sbeautiful“sister”intohisharem!AbrahamdidnothingofthesortthatRam,thedivineheroofIndia’sreligiousepic,theRamayana,didtoRavana,afterhehadtakenRam’swifeSitaintohisharem.Ramorganizedanarmyofmonkeys,builtabridgeacrosstheocean,burnedSriLanka,broughthiswifebackinaflyingmachine,andinspiredJamesCameron’sAvatar.Abimelech,ontheotherhand,returnedAbraham’swifebecauseGodrebukedhiminadream.2Aren’tdivineinterventionsinthedomesticaffairsofaninsignificantnomadreasonablegroundsfor

dismissingtheBibleasmyth?Quitethecontrary.TheirshockingsimplicityinspiresconfidencethattheBiblerecordsreality.TheBible’snarrativesaretrue,notmyths.Itsrealismisneitheranartist’screation,norcontrived.Farfrombeinganaestheticgoal,theBible’srealismisameansofconveyingthemessageofourCreatorcaringforhiscreation.Heintervenesinourpersonalandnationalhistoriesinresponsetohumblefaith.Thesenarrativescarrywithinthemastampofauthorityabsentinclassicallegends.TheGermanphilologist,literarycritic,andcomparativescholarErichAuerbachcomparedHomer’s

Odysseus to Abraham in the account of Abraham’s sacrifice of Isaac. He concluded that although nohistoricalevidenceisavailableforthebiblicalnarrative,itsliterarycharacteristheoppositeofGreekmyths.

[The biblical narrator] . . . had to believe in the objective truth of the story of Abraham’s sacrifice—the existence of the sacredordinancesofliferesteduponthetruthofthisandsimilarstories.Hehadtobelieveinitpassionately;orelse(asmanyrationalisticinterpretersbelievedandperhapsstillbelieve)hehadtobeaconsciousliar—noharmlessliarlikeHomer,wholiedtogivepleasure,butapoliticalliarwithadefiniteendinview,lyingintheinterestofaclaimtoabsoluteauthority.3

Indianmyths,likeGreco-Romanmyths,areaboutaristocrats—therulingeliteandsages.Theheroesof

Genesis,bycontrast,areordinarypeoplewithfeetofclay.AbrahamandSarahwereelderlynomadswhocouldnotevenbearababyuntilGodvisitedthem.Heblessedthemfortheirhospitalitytostrangersandpromisedtoblessallthenationsoftheearththroughtheirdescendants.4Homerwouldn’tpickanyofusasheroes.ButallofuscanbelikeAbrahamandIsaac,Jacoband

Joseph.Ifextraordinarythingscanhappentosimplepeople, if throughtheobedienceoffaithwecanbecomeablessingtoourneighborsandtothenationsoftheearth,thenallofuscanbeheroes.TheBible’smessagethatGodisacompassionateSaviorisanotherdistinctivethatmadetheBiblea

sourceofnation-buildingliterature.Goddoesincrediblethingsthroughordinarypeoplebecauseheiscommittedtoblessinghischildren.AnotherfeaturethatcontributedtoitsuniquepowerwasthattheBibleenabledthinkersindifferent

culturesatdifferenttimestomakesenseoftheirworld.TheBible’snarrativebeginsatthebeginning,takesarealisticlookatevil—itscauses,terribleconsequences,andcure—andconcludesbyprojectingapropheticglimpseintoagloriousfuture.Thebiblicalhistorythusofferedanunfoldingworldview.Thatenabledbig-picturewriterslikeJohnMiltonandJ.R.R.Tolkientomakesenseofthemessinourworld,whileallowingShakespearetofindmeaningintheordinary,tragicstrugglesofyoungloverslikeRomeoandJuliet.TransformationanddevelopmentofcharacterisanimportantfeatureoftheBiblethathashadenormous

impact on modern writing. Homer’s heroes don’t change. But Jacob does. He begins his career bydeceivinghisfather,stealinghisbrother’sblessings,andcheatinghisfather-in-law.HisexperienceswithGodtransformhimintoaverydifferentperson.Hethenblesseshischildrenandgrandchildrenwitha

prophetic faith in the future. Moses is an archetypal reluctant hero, who has greatly influencedHollywood’sideaofahero.Simon,whodeniedhisLordthreetimes,istransformedintoPeter—therock.SaulofTarsusbeginshiscareerasapersecutorofthechurchbutbecomesPaul,anapostlewhosuffersforthetruth.BiblicalcharacterschangeasGodcallsindividualstofollowhimratherthanculture.GodasksNoah

tobuildaboat—anactofpropheticjudgmentonthecorruptionofhistimes.GodasksofAbraham:“Gofromyourcountryandyourkindredandyour father’shouse to the land that Iwill showyou.”5 GodchoosesAbrahamforhisfriend:“IamAlmightyGod;walkbeforeMeandbeblameless.AndIwillmakeMycovenantbetweenMeandyou.”6GodimpliesthatwearetowalkwithHim,notfollowthetraditionsandcounselofrebelliousmen.Tomakeadifferenceonemustlivedifferently.Biblicalnarrativesofindividualtransformationthatimpactedhistorybecameanessentialfeatureof

modernliteratureandart.TheBibleproducedwriterswhowereworldchangers.ThiswasdramaticallydifferentfromtheavatarsofIndianepics,likeRamaandKrishna,whopreserveddharma—thestatusquo.TheyposedaproblemforIndiannovelists.MeenakshiMukherjee,aliterarycriticteachingEnglishatDelhi’sJawaharlalNehruUniversity,bestcapturedthistension:

ThepicaresquetraditionintheEuropeannovelhasachievedonemainpurpose—ithadliberatedtheprotagonistfromtherigidityofastaticsocietyintobeingafreeagentwhocouldtosomeextentshapehisowndestiny.RobinsonCrusoe(1719),MollFlanders(1722),Pamela(1740),threeearlyexamplesoftheEnglishnovel,showhowthecentralcharacterisineachcaseanactiveratherthanapassive agent challenging his or her fate. The Indian novelist had to operate in a tradition-bound society where neither a man’sprofessionnorhismarriagewashispersonalaffair.Hislifewasmappedoutbyhisfamilyorhiscommunityorhiscaste.Intherigidlyhierarchicalfamilialandsocialstructureofnineteenth-centuryIndia,individualismwasnotaneasyqualitytorenderinliterature.7

TheBibleexercisedauniqueauthorityovercreativewritersbypresentinganunfoldingviewofthe

worldandlifethatclaimedtobetrue.ThisclaimdemandedthatourliteratureandcultureconfrontandconformtoGod’srevealedwill.SinceourworldissodifferentfromtheBible’sworldofshepherds,sowers,andtaxcollectors,writersfoundplentyofroomtobeimaginativeinmakingourworldmorebiblical.AsAuerbachputit:“Farfromseeking,likeHomer,merelytomakeusforgetourownrealityforafewhours,it[theBible]seekstoovercomeourreality:wearetofitourownlifeintoitsworld,feelourselvestobeelementsinitsstructureofuniversalhistory.”8IncontrasttoHomericpoems,theBiblepresentsitselfasoursoleauthoritywithtruththatexplains

historywhilegivingultimatemeaning.Farfromstiflingthought,itsclaimenabledbelieverstointerpretandapplyittotheirever-changingworld.Thismadeitpossibleforcreativewriterstoanchorontherockoftimelesstruthwhileallowingtheirimaginationstoflywithandbeyondtheirtimes.AsT.S.Eliotputit,the“BiblehashadaliteraryinfluenceuponEnglishliteraturenotbecauseithas

beenconsideredasliterature,butbecauseithasbeenconsideredasthereportoftheWordofGod.Andthe fact that men of letters now discuss it as ‘literature’ probably indicates the end of its ‘literary’influence.”9TheBible’sinfluenceonEnglishliteratureisillustratedthroughoutitshistory.

EARLYENGLISHLITERATURE

Vernacular dialects became Old English in the seventh and eighth centuries AD. Monasteries werethrivinginEurope.FromItalytoEngland,IrelandtoSpain,monasteriesusedLatin.ButinEnglandsomeof thembeganwritingEnglishliterature.AmongEngland’searliestchronologists, theVenerableBede(AD673–735) toldof theshepherdCaedmon inaseventh-centurymonastery.Onenight the illiterateCaedmon miraculously received a gift for poetic verse in his vernacular Anglo-Saxon (a GermanicforebearerofOldEnglish).WhentheabbessinchargeheardCaedmon’sgift,shehadhimstudytheBible.

Hethenparaphrasedbiblicalnarrativesintovernacularpoetryunderstandablebyeventheroughest-hewnEnglishpeasant.10WhileCaedmonisexceptional,OldEnglishpoetryhasaconsistentlybiblicalflavor,from“TheDream

oftheRood,”aboutChrist’svictoryoversinonthecross(rood),toBeowulf,anepicpoeminterspersedwithbiblicalcommentsonmeritsordemeritsofthenarrative.Anglo-SaxonpoetsconsistentlyheededtheBible’svernacularliterature.

RENAISSANCEENGLISHLITERATURE

This biblical consciousness became conspicuous in England’s sixteenth-and seventeenth-centuryRenaissance literature. Dr. Louise Cowan, editor of Invitation to the Classics, was an Englishdepartmentchairmanandgraduateschooldean.Althoughheruniversityeducationhaddemolishedherchildhoodfaith,teachingHamletbegantoopenhereyestobiblicalfaithandheroism.Hamlet’sfriendHoratiocautionshimtocalloffhisduel.ButHamlet’sfaithovercomesthiswarning.“Thereisspecialprovidenceinthefallofasparrow,”Hamletdeclares,alludingtoJesuscomfortinghisworrieddisciplesthatnotevenasparrowfallstothegroundwithouthisFather’swill.11HamletplaceshislifeinGod’shands,affirmingGod’ssovereignty:“Ifitbenow,’tisnottocome;ifitbenottocome,itwillbenow.Ifitbenotnow,yetitwillcome.Thereadinessisall.”12Cowan’sprofessorsandscholarlyauthoritiesmadeShakespeareanonbeliever—afreethinker.They

describedShakespeareasageniuswritingformoney,notart.Hiscomedieswerebutbitsoffroth,histragediesnihilistic.Shakespeare,theybelieved,summeduphissecularoutlookinKingLear:

Asfliestowantonboysarewetogods;Theykillusfortheirsport.13

ReadingShakespearetoherclassforcedCowantoreconsider:

This mention of providence struck me as being in marked contrast with Hamlet’s earlier anguished irony. It took on the aura ofsomethingmomentous.WhatdidShakespeareintendhisreaderstothinkofsoradicalaturnabout?DiditnotinfactimplythattheauthorhimselfsawandunderstoodthechangewroughtinHamletbyfaith?…IporedoverHamletseveraltimesduringtheensuingmonths,eachtimefindingfurtherevidenceofShakespeare’sspiritualoutlook.Andgraduallyitbecameapparentthathisperspectivewasnotsimplyspiritual,butovertlyChristian.Sacrificiallovewasevidenteverywhereinhisdramas.Gracewasoneofhiskeywords;evilwasitsdarkercounterpart.HiscomediesinparticularwerevirtualillustrationsofthemesandpassagesfromScripture.Bytoday,ofcourse,severalscholarshavecometoacknowledgeandevenexploreShakespeare’sChristianfaith;butat that timemydiscoveryseemedmonumental.Itmeantrecognizingthesecularismofourdayanddiscerningthebiasofmostscholars.14

THECLASSICALINFLUENCEOFGREEKANDROME

Pre-Christian Greek and Roman literature enormously influenced Christian Europe. Highlighting theBible’s foundational role in theWest’s rich literary tradition isnot tosay thatancient literaturesarewithoutmeritandinfluence.ClassicalGreeksandRomansproducedsomeoftheWest’sbestliterature.PoetslikeÆschylus,Virgil,Homer,andSenecaskillfullycraftedstories.Theydelvedintopsychologyandcriticallyexploredculture,settingthemapartfrommostworldliterature.Yet,foralltheirgenius,theyfailedtofindafoundationforpositiveculturalchange.Theirworldviewwasinfusedwithfatalismunderpettygods.Itgavenobasisforfaithtomovemountains.Theirvicious,unpredictablegodsinflictsufferingonthegoodandbadalike.Why,then,choosegood,ifcompromisemakeslifeeasier?PlaywrightslikeÆschylusdefendedAthens’democracy,butpeopleuseditforpersonalgainoverthe

polis’s good. Prominent Athenian politicians were frequently exiled by political gamesmanship. This

democracyexecutedSocratesforcastigatingitsself-indulgence.ThegreatpoetVirgil(70–19BC)wrotetheAeneidaspropagandathatallmythologyandhistoryculminatedinCaesarAugustus’sreign.ApersistentWesternthemeisthecentralityofjourneysindevelopingplot.Homer’sOdysseyfollowed

Odysseus’slongjourneyhomefromtheTrojanWar.Writteninanageofnever-endingwar,returningtoone’swifeandhomewastheclimaxofheroism.Virgil’shero,Aeneas,lefthishomeinTroytofoundtheimperialcityofRome.InhisAeneid,Virgilskillfullypliesthepowerofpoeticdictiontothisjourneymotif.*Rome’s Christians had to grapple with the purpose of pagan poets. Virgil’s Rome was but grand

literaryfantasy.Caesar’srealRometortured,crucified,andburnedthemalive.Themartyrs’experienceconfirmedthebiblicalworldviewthatsinfulhumansareincapableofbuildingajustcitywithoutdivinehelp.InhisclassicTheCityofGod,St.Augustine(AD354–430)broughtthistensionintofocus.ForJews,

Jerusalem was the city of God. But Christians viewed themselves as “strangers and pilgrims in thisworld.”15 They sought “for a city whose designer and builder is God.”16 The Bible’s last book,Revelation,revealstheNewJerusalem—aheavenlyparadiseforGod’speople.AugustineembeddedthisbiblicalgoaldeepintoEurope’ssubconscious.DanteAlighieri(1265–1321)usedthisjourneyofChristianfaithinTheDivineComedy,rivaledonly

byJohnMilton’sParadiseLost.WhileDantechoseVirgilastheguidethroughhellandpurgatory,hedidnotdeifyhisLatinforebearer.Instead,heexploredcontemporaryreligiousbattlesnavigatingthespheresofhell(theInferno),purgatory**(thePurgatorio),andheaven(theParadiso).HiscosmicjourneyendswithavisionofthetriuneGodhead:

IntheprofundityoftheclearsubstanceOfthedeeplight,appearedtomethreecirclesOfthreecoloursandequalcircumference;Andthefirstseemedtobereflectedbythesecond,Asarainbowbyarainbow,andthethirdSeemedlikeaflamebreathedequallyfromboth…Oeternallight,existinginyourselfalone,Aloneknowingyourself;andwho,knowntoyourselfAndknowing,loveandsmileuponyourself!17

Dante’sprofoundjourneyservesasadivinemetaphorforthevaluesnecessarytodevelopthecityofGodonearth.JustastheFather,Son,andHolySpiritare“ofthreecoloursandequalcircumference,”humans,too—whofindtheir“effigy”inthefaceoftheTrinity—oughttofunctionasindividualswhileretainingcollectivegoalsandinstitutions.Theonlyforcethatcaneffect thisunity,Dantebelieved, isdivine love. Without that love people act like the damned in Dante’s hell—they abuse, insult, andcannibalizeoneanotherwithnocheckontheirdestructivebehavior.Mimicking the city of God while on earth became the driving vision for history’s most famous

journeyingsects:theAmericanPilgrims.ThosesailingfromEnglandtoAmericaontheMayflowerknewthattheyweregoingawayfromJerusalem’s“holyland.”Why,then,didtheycallthemselves“pilgrims”?BecausetheywerelookingforaNewJerusalem,aplaceforGod’swilltobedone“onearthasitis[done] in heaven.”18 They sought a land where God’s law and grace would rule in place of humanoppressionandwickedness.TheforerunnersofthePilgrims,poets,andwriterswerenurturedonthisbiblicalideaofaNewJerusalem.ThisideaoftheheavenlyJerusaleminspiredgreatliteraryworkssuchasPilgrim’sProgress(1678)by

John Bunyan (1628–88), which drove biblical spirituality deep into the soul of Western civilization.UnlikeHomer’shero,Bunyan’spilgrimisnotreturninghome.Bunyanwrote,“Isawaman…withhisface[turnedaway]fromHisownHouse,aBookinhishand,andagreatburdenuponhisback.”19Nordid

Pilgrim follow Virgil’s hero to found another imperial city. Pilgrim set his face on a journey to thecelestialcity,theCityofGod.Hisweaponwasnotasword,butabook—theBible.Hisgoalwasnottobattletheproudandimposehislawupontheconquered.Hisfirstgoalwasdeliverancefromhisownburdenofsinandovercomingoverpoweringtemptations.Bunyan’sheroispolesapartfromHomer’sheroes,AchillesandOdysseus.Achillesishuge,swift,

immortallybeautiful,andthe“mostterrifyingofallmen.”Odysseusisatrickster,amasterofdisguisesandartfuldeceptions,whoisabletoendurecountlesshardshipstocleavetohisonevirtuouspurpose—toreturnhometohisfamily.ButinEngland,Bunyan’svisionoftheheroasapilgrimwonout.ForfourcenturiesfollowingBunyan,English-speakingChristianshavesungtheheroismofpilgrimageinto thesubconsciousoftheirculture:

Whowouldtruevaloursee,Lethimcomehither,Oneherewillconstantbe,Comewind,comeweather,There’snodiscouragementShallmakehimoncerelentHisfirstavow’dintentTobeapilgrim.20

Bunyan was thrown in prison for three months for refusing to follow an Elizabethan Act againstreligious freedom. He ended up spending a total of twelve years in prison on different counts andoccasions,givinghimtimetowritesixtybooks.Pilgrim’sProgresswastranslatedintoDutch,French,andWelshwithinhislifetime.Sincethenithasbeentranslatedintomorethantwohundredlanguages.After the Bible, it is the second most translated and published book. It was through this book thatPuritanismenteredthemainstreamofEnglishreligiouslife.Bunyan’spilgrimssucceededwhereHomer’sandVirgil’sheroescouldnot,asBunyan’spilgrimsbuilt

citiesandnationsthatwerecleanoutsidebecausetheyemphasizedcleanlinessinside—intheinnerlifeofthespirit.Butthisliteraryrevolutionwentfarbeyondcleancities.In“PuritansasDemocrats,”historianJacques Barzun concludes that the socio-economic-political reforms that our age ascribes to theEnlightenmentactuallycamefromwritersexpoundingtheBible:

ThattheEnglishwrappedupeveryideaandattitudeinreligiouslanguageandusedprecedentsfromScripturesastheirbestauthoritygivestheperiodanauraofastruggleaboutobsoletecauses.Butthesecausesweredouble,andtheideashiddenbythepiouslanguagewere.. .pregnantforthefuture.ThesectsandleadersclassedasPuritans,Presbyterians,Independents,weresocialandpoliticalreformers.Theydifferedmainlyinthedegreeoftheirradicalism.21

IfBarzunisright,thenhavesecularuniversitiesdeceivedseveralgenerationsintobelievingthatthe

greatideasthatbuiltthemodernworldcamefromsecularEnlightenment?JohnLilburne’scareer(1614–57)couldhelpusunderstandtheanswer.LilburnewasamemberoftherevolutionBarzunistalkingabout.AcontemporaryofJohnMiltonand

JohnBunyan,asapamphleteerJohnLilburnebecameoneofthemostradicalPuritanwritersofthattime.He applied the Bible to social, economic, and political issues, helping to lay the foundations of ourmodernworld.Hischallengetotheleadershipandinstitutionsofhisdaywassoprofoundthathewasarrestedtimeandagain.Henarrowlyescapedmartyrdommorethanonce.Barzunwrote,

Lilburnedeservesmorefamethanhehasbeengrantedbyposterity.Plumbinthemiddleofthe17Chereisawriterwhodeclaresanddemands the rightsofman.Hisprogramwas theone thathasmade thegloryof the18Ctheoristsandhisbehaviorhasbecomestandardpolicyforrevolutionistsdowntothepresent.Hishandicapisthatalthoughheinvokesthelawofnature,hisargumentisfullofbiblicisms.22

Barzun points out that what Lilburne carried whole in his mind, dozens of his fellow Puritanpamphleteersadvocatedpiecemeal.Manycalledforarepublic,thevoteforall,theabolitionofrankandprivilege,equalitybeforelaw,freetrade,andabetterdistributionofproperty.Afewurgedtoleration.Allofthem,however,justifiedthesegoalsoutofScripture.Becauseoftheir“bias,”modernhistorianstracetheseideastosecularsourcesratherthantothePuritanwritingsinwhichtheyoriginated.TheyprefertosourcefreetradefromAdamSmithratherthanLilburne’sdiscussionoftheparableofthetalents.Withtheirbias,theywouldrathercreditJohnLockethananobscureAnabaptistpreacherfortheprinciplethatallmenarebornfreeandequal.ThepreacherquotedSt.Paul,whosaidthatGodhas“norespectofpersons”andthatthereis“no

differencebetweenJewandGentile.”23OtherPuritansinsistedthatGod’sgraceisfree—allshareinitastheyshareinAdam’ssin.Hencesuperiorrankhasnowarrants;theonlysuperiorityisthatofspirit.Torationalists,thiswasnowaytoargue.

LITERATUREINTHESECULARWEST

Not until 1900 did secular literature outsell religious literature in England—though much “secular”Westernliteraturewasaby-productoftheBible.OneexampleisEngland’spoetlaureateAlfred,LordTennyson(1809–92),sonofclergymanDr.GeorgeClaytonTennyson.Tennysonisclassifiedasasecularwriter,buthisentirecorpusisimbuedwithareligioussensibility.HenryVanDyke’sanalysisofTennysonincludes a forty-seven-page-long list of biblical quotations and allusions that appear in the poet’sworks.24Similarly,justtheindexofBiblereferencesinthewritingsofJohnRuskin(1819–1900)—whohada

greatimpactonMahatmaGandhi—runstomorethanthreehundredpages.RuskinwasnotatheologianorBibleteacher.HewastheSladeProfessorofArtatOxfordandwroteonartandarchitecture,rebellingagainsttheaestheticallynumbingandsociallydebasingeffectsoftheIndustrialRevolution,andexploringthedomestic,social,moral,andspiritualeffectsofartandarchitecture.25Though dominated by secular humanism, the twentieth-century elite failed to weaken the power of

biblicalnarrativeinliterature.Secularhumanismrejectsthebiblicalworldviewofapersonal,rational,meaningfuluniversewithgoodtriumphingoverevil,providingthehopeofredemption.JeanPaulSartre(1905–80)masterfullyexpressedtheatheisticexistentialwastelandinNausea(1938).InSartre’sworld,every aspect of human existence is ludicrous. Even the torturous rape and murder of a young girl istrivializedasjustonemoremeaninglesseventinanemptyuniverse.Sartre’ssolutiontothisdilemmaistoescapeourabsurdexistencebycreatingsomething(inthiscaseajazzrecording)thatexistsindependentofourselves.InTheStranger,AlbertCamus(1913–60)similarlyexploresthebumblinglifeofadegenerate,who—

fornoapparentreasonwhatsoever—murdersastrangeronanAlgerianbeach.Whileawell-wroughtpieceofliterature,itprovidesnobasisforthemoralreformsthatCamussought.Itmayresonatewithpeopledraggedintodepressionbytheirbeliefinthemeaninglessnessoflife.Yetitprovidesnoimpetusforthemtoliftthemselvesbackoutoftheirexistentialangstandmaketheirworldbetter.The stories that inspired us, that fired our imaginations and called for social reform—even in the

seculartwentiethcentury—haveoftenbeeninspiredbythebiblicalworldview.EastofEden(1952)byNobelPrize–winnerJohnSteinbeck(1902–68)isamodernretellingof therivalrybetweenCainandAbelfromGenesis.IncontrasttoEasternfatalism,theBibleteachesthathumanshavegenuinefreedom.The premise of Steinbeck’s novel stands or falls on the translation of the Hebrew word timshel inGenesis4:7.Theoverarchingmessageisthathumansareslavesneitheroffatenorofforcesbeyondtheircontrol, such as the stars. Rather, we have freedom, the ability to choose. Timshel, according toSteinbeck,meansthatpeoplecanovercomesin.

TheBible’sinfluenceonliteraturecontinuesunabatedtothisday.Forexample,theheroinStephenKing’sTheGreenMileisaChristfigure.Kingexplained:

NotlongafterIbeganTheGreenMileandrealizedthatmymaincharacterwasaninnocentmanlikelytobeexecutedforthecrimeofanother,IdecidedtogivehimtheinitialsJ.C.,afterthemostfamousinnocentmanofalltime.IfirstsawthisdoneinLightinAugust(stillmyfavoriteFaulknernovel),wherethesacrificiallambisnamedJoeChristmas.Thusdeath-rowinmateJohnBowesbecameJohnCoffey.Iwasn’tsure,rightuptotheendofthebook,ifmyJ.C.wouldliveordie.26

AnotherofKing’sstories,BlackHouse(2001),hasastrongbiblicalredemptiontheme.Afterthehero,

Jack Sawyer, saves a Wisconsin town from a serial killer and in the process liberates multitudes ofchildrenofeveryraceandlanguagefromanevil,other-dimensionalforce,heisshotrepeatedlybyacrazedwoman.Beforeslumpingdown,heholdsuphisbloodyhandpiercedbyabulletandlooksatherwithforgivenessinhiseyes.Heisthenwhiskedawaytoaparalleluniversewhere“theCarpenter-God”hasmoreworkforhimtoaccomplish.ButKing’sconceptofredemptivetranscendentrealitycontrastssharplywiththetrendincontemporary

literature. Today’s Western literature is adept in using aesthetic forms to analyze and diagnose theproblems inWesternculture.WriterssuchasDonDeLillo,UmbertoEco,JoséSaramago,andJulianBarnes—mastersofformandtheaestheticpleasures—havedonesignificantworktopointoutwheretheWesturgentlyneedsimprovement.Theyhavebeenmuchlesssuccessful,however,inofferingapositivesourceofreformforWesternculture.Westernwriterssincethe1960shavefoundmeaningintheirracialorethnictraditions,inthepraxesof

thevariousfeminisms,inthecustomsofsexualidentitygroups,andinthetraditionsoftheirgeographicregions.Whilethesewritershavelocatedmanyimportantcentersofculturalactivityandidentity,fewhave been willing to take the next step in asserting that their personal center could solve the West’smalaiseingeneral.Theyassumethatweashumanbeingscannotlocateanysourceofmeaningoutsideourlocalidentitygroups—thatthereisnosourceoftranscendentauthorityfromwhichtocallforbroadsocialandinstitutionalreform.TheotherdominantschoolofWesternwritersadvocateslivinglivesof“freeplay.”Itbelievesthatif

wecontinuallyreinventourselves in themidstofour fluctuatingsocial,psychological,andeconomicenvironments,wewillbeabletomeetourimmediateneeds.Inpractical,ifnottheoreticalDarwinianterms,theyassumethatnothingexistsoutsidethemoment.Tomeettheneedsofeachmomentisthebestonecanhopefor.Thishassometruthinthatweactandspeakaccordingtoourcontext.Yetthisconceptoffreeplayhas

lostanysenseofaunifyingforceholdingtogetherthedisparateelementsofmodernlife.ProponentsofthisfreeplayrejectDante’strinitarianviewthat,amidthediversityandfragmentationofourindividuallives,aunitycanemergetogivebreadth,depth,andmeaningtoourdifferentexperiences.Without a trinitarian God, most postmodern writers are left with little choice but to immerse

themselves in themoment inanattempt to forget theirveryrealneed for transcendence. In theirperpetualsearchforpersonalsoul,theyexacerbatedtheWest’slossofitscollectivesoul.TheBible’simpactonliteraturemadeittheWest’ssourceofculturalauthority.ArejectionoftheBible

isresultinginmoralandintellectualanarchy.Second-generationMuslimsarethereforereexaminingIslamintheirsearchforawaytofillthevacuumcreatedbyseculareducation.LetusnextconsidertheBible’sinfluenceoneducation.*Amotifisanelementinastorythatappearsrepeatedlyandmeaningfully,aswiththemessiahmotifintheMatrixtrilogy.Inthiscase,thejourneyisamotifthatappearsinanumberofdifferentworks,notsimplymanytimesinonework.**InCatholictheology,purgatoryisanintermediateplacebetweenheavenandhellwherebaptizedChristianssufferaspenancefortheirsinswhileonearthbeforeascendingtoheaven.Protestantsrejectthisdoctrineashavingnobiblicalbasis.

ChapterTwelve

UNIVERSITY

WHYEDUCATEYOURSUBJECTS?

WhydidmyuniversityinAllahabadhaveachurch,*butnotaHindutempleoraMuslimmosque?BecausetheuniversitywasinventedandestablishedbyChristians.Neithercolonialismnorcommercespreadmoderneducationaroundtheworld.Soldiersandmerchants

donoteducate.EducationwasaChristianmissionaryenterprise.ItwasintegraltoChristianmissionsbecausemoderneducationisafruitoftheBible.ThebiblicalReformation,borninEuropeanuniversities,tookeducationoutofthecloisterandspreaditaroundtheglobe.Inchapter3Itoldofhowtheuniversityshookmyteenagefaith,andwhyIdecidedtotestiftheBible’s

prediction—thatallnationswouldbeblessedthroughAbraham’sdescendants—wasbeingfulfilled.IwasastonishedtodiscoverthattheBiblewasthesourceofpracticallyeverythinggoodinmyhometown,eventhesecularuniversitythatunderminedtheBible.Attheconfluenceofthe“holy”riversGanges,Yamuna,andthemythical**Saraswati,Allahabadis

reveredasoneofIndia’sholiestplaces.RiverswerenaturalhighwaysforpeopleandcargobeforetheBritish built our roads and railways. The Ganges and Yamuna enabled people to travel north to theHimalayas and southeast to the Bay of Bengal. Consequently Allahabad hosts the world’s largestassembly,theKumbhMela,everytwelveyears.Akbar,thegreatestMogulemperor,*builtamassivefortin1583atourtown’sstrategicconfluence,

renamingitthe“abodeofAllah.”AnAshokapillar(232BC)**commemoratestheBuddha’sfirstsermonatnearbySarnath.Around263BCAshokahadconvertedtoBuddhisminreactiontothehorrorsofwarpromptedbyhis

remarkableimperialexpansion.Heerectedtheseornatepillars,oftenastallasfiftyfeet,tocommemoratenotablepointsonaBuddhistpilgrimageheundertookaroundtheyear253BC.Mostofthepillarsareinscribedwithimperialedictsandthereasonthat theparticular locationofapillar isanotableone.SubsequentrulersofIndiahaveoccasionallytranscribedtheirownhistoriesuponthesepillars.AnnualfestivalsdreweveryimportantHindureligious,political,economic,andintellectualleaderto

thisconfluencein the last twomillennia.Themoneypilgrimsdonatedis incalculable.Yet theHindu,Buddhist,andMuslimcivilizationsdidnotestablishasinglesignificant institutionof learning in thiscenterofGangeticcivilization.Some“holymen”nearAllahabad’sconfluencewereatleastasbrilliantanddedicatedasthefriars

whofoundedOxfordandCambridge.Theyfailedtoestablishauniversitybecauseoftheirreligiousquestto“kill”theirminds.Theylayonnails,buriedthemselves,orsatcoveredonlywithashesandcowdung,smoking drugs, and seeking enlightenment. Their path to enlightenment was Jnana Marg—the path ofknowledgeofSelf,God,oronenessofeverything.Yettheyhadnointerestinthematerialworld,fortheythoughtitmayaorillusion.Theirphilosophygavenomotivationtoaccumulatepartial,piecemealworldlyknowledgethatisthe

hallmarkofmoderneducation.Bycontrast,thebiblicalviewmademodernsciencepossiblebyenabling

theChristianmindtobecontentwithpartialandfiniteknowledge,whichgrowsincrementallythroughcoordinatedeffortsovergenerations.InAllahabad,thefewHindueducationalinstitutionsofthetwentiethcenturywereinresponsetothe

Christian initiatives. These imitations were not inspired by the Hindu worldview. Generally, HindulearningwastaughttoyoungBrahminmen,notininstitutionsbutintheirgurus’homes.*InplaceslikeNalanda and Takshila, the Buddhists built religious education centers.** By the second millennium,however,thesecenterswereindecline.TheydisappearedcompletelywiththeMuslimconquestofIndia.TakshilawasaboutfortymileswestofmodernRawalpindiinPakistan.Itwasneveraswellorganized

asNalanda.Mogul India was one of the largest Muslim empires.*** But Muslims developed no noteworthy

educationalinstitutionsinIndia.HistorianMichaelEdwardessummedupIndia’spre-Britisheducation:

ThetypeofeducationtheBritishhadfoundwhentheyarrivedinIndiawasalmostentirelyreligious,andhighereducationforHindusandMuslimswaspurelyliterary.HinduhighereducationwasalmostaBrahminmonopoly.Brahmins,thepriestlycaste,spenttheirtime[inschoolscalledTols]studyingreligioustextsinadeadlanguage,Sanskrit.Therewereanumberofschools[calledPathshalas],usinglivinglanguages,butfewBrahminssenttheirchildrentosuchschools,wherethemainsubjecttaughtwasthepreparationofaccount.Muslimhighereducationwasconducted[inmadrasas*]inalivinglanguage—Arabic,whichwasnotspokeninIndia.Buttherewerealso schools which taught Persian** and some secular subjects. The state—as distinct from individual rulers— accepted noresponsibilityforeducation.1

ItmadesenseforAkbartofortifyAllahabadtoconsolidatehisIslamicrule.Butitmakesnosenseto

mostpeopleforBritishimperialists tobuilduniversitiestoeducatetheirsubjectsforself-rule.Why?BritishevangelicalsforcedcolonialrulerstoeducateIndiansforfreedom.2TheyfoundedourUniversityof Allahabad as Muir Central College (1873) after its chief patron, Sir William Muir (1819–1905).ThoughlieutenantgovernoroftheUnitedProvinces,MuirwasthegreatestChristianapologistvis-à-visIslam.By1887,thecollegegrewintothefourthIndo-BritishuniversityinIndiaafterCalcutta,Madras,andBombay.(SeramporewasDutch.)MichaelEdwardesexplainedthemotivebehindtheChristianeducationalmission:

ThedecisiontoconcentrateonprovidingWesterneducationintheEnglishlanguagewasmadefromothermotivesthaneconomy….Educationhadmoral,political,andcommercialovertonesintheeyesofsuchmenasMacaulay.He,andthosewhothoughtlikehim,werefollowingEvangelicalratherthanUtilitarianprinciples.ItwasCharlesGrantwhowastheprophetofEnglisheducationinIndia,notJamesMill.Indeed,Millwashighlyscepticalabouttheeffectivenessofany[emphasisintheoriginal]formofeducationinIndia.Themoralovertoneswere,ofcourse,Christianincharacter…MacaulayandotherslookedforwardtoafutureinwhichIndians,havingacquiredatastefor“Europeancivilization,”mightdemandEuropeaninstitutionsandevenindependencefromBritain.3

CHARLESGRANT(1746–1823)

TheIndiangovernment’seducationalrecordsbeginwithextensivequotationsfromCharlesGrant.HearrivedinBengal(1768)justasthedevastatingfamineof1769–70killedmillions.ThatfaminemotivatedGranttoreformBritishadministrationtotransformtheIndianmind,agriculture,industry,andeconomy.Thoseseculargoals,acceptabletonon-Christians,wereinspiredbyGrant’sbiblicalworldview.HesaweducationasafoundationforhisgoalsbecauseIndia’s“secular”problemsemanatedfromitsreligiousworldviews.TransformingIndia’seconomicculturerequiredtransformingitsreligiouspresuppositions.GrantcametoIndiaasasecular,pennilessyoungmantomakemoney.Hesawthecorruptionand

misrulethatenrichedsomeEnglishmenbutdestroyedBengal’seconomy.Withinthiscorruption,GrantsawRichardBechner,hisChristianboss,feeduptoseventhousandpeopleeverydayinMurshidabad,exerting “every nerve to alleviate the sufferings of the famine-stricken people.” Later, in Calcutta, apersonal tragedy—thedeathsofhis twodaughters—forcedGrant toaddress thequestionsof lifeand

eternity.HebecameaChristianandmetwithtwoothermentostudytheBibleandpray.TheBibledidnotgivehimphilosophicalspeculationsoranabsentee,distantCreator.Rather,itrevealedaGodintimatelyinvolved in human history. Jesus’ mission to inaugurate God’s kingdom for the poor was radicallydifferentfromGrant’sandhiscompany’smissioninIndia.StudyingtheBibleenabledGranttomakeGod’smissionhisown.God’sWord,asGrantconcluded,

requiredrealigningtheBritishmissionwithGod’spurposesforIndia.OnSeptember17,1787,GrantsenthisfamousappealformissionstofourteenpublicfiguresinBritain.4TheonlypositiveresponsecamefromCharlesSimeon(1759–1836)ofCambridge.SimeonwasthevicarofHolyTrinityChurchandafellow of King’s College. This influential preacher, sometimes called the father of modernevangelicalism,challengedstudentstoserveIndia.In 1790, Grant returned to England disappointed that his appeal for mission seemed to have gone

unheeded. Then through amazing circumstances, he became a friend of William Wilberforce, anevangelicalmemberofParliament.WilberforcehadreceivedGrant’sappealforIndiawhenhewassick.Withhisencouragement,Grantwrotehisrationaleformissions:ObservationsontheStateofSocietyamongtheAsiaticSubjectsofGreatBritain,particularlywithrespecttoMoralsandontheMeansofImprovingit.WrittenChieflyintheYear1792.Though not formally published until 1797, Grant’s book was the acknowledged background of

Parliament’s1793debateonmissions.In1812,Parliamentordereditpublishedasastatepaper,asthebest source of information on India. Grant’s arguments for mission and education were inseparablyintertwined.(Legalwallsseparatingchurchandstateineducationwerenotinplaceyet.)HisargumentstriggeredamovementthatenabledIndiatobecomeoneoftheworld’sleadingcentersforeducation.GrantaddressedhisbooktoBritishleaderswhoknewhowtheBibleandChristianuniversitieshad

helpedreformBritishsociety,politics,andeconomy.HeadvocatedthesameblessingforIndia:

Thetruecurefordarkness,istheintroductionoflight.TheHindoos[sic]err,becausetheyareignorant;andtheirerrorshaveneverfairlybeenlaidbeforethem.Thecommunicationofourlightandknowledgetothem,wouldprovethebestremedyfortheirdisorders…itisperfectlyinthepowerofthiscountry,bydegreestoimparttotheHindoosourlanguage;andafterwardsthroughthatmedium,tomakethemacquaintedwithoureasyliterarycompositions,uponavarietyofsubjects…ourarts,ourphilosophyandreligion…Withourlanguage,muchofourusefulliteraturemight,andwould,intimebecommunicated…theHindooswouldseethegreatusewemakeofreasononallsubjects,andinallaffairs;theyalsowouldlearntoreason,theywouldbecomeacquaintedwiththehistoryoftheirownspecies…theiraffectionswouldgraduallybecomeinterestedinvariousengagingworks,composedtorecommendvirtue,andtodeterfromvice;thegeneralmassoftheiropinionswouldberectified;andaboveall,theywouldseeabettersystemofprinciplesandmorals.Newviewsofdutyasrationalcreatureswouldopenuponthem;andthatmentalbondageinwhichtheyhavelongbeenholden[sic]wouldgraduallydissolve…perhapsnoacquisitioninnaturalphilosophy[science]wouldsoeffectuallyenlightenthemassofthepeople,astheintroductionoftheprinciplesofmechanics[technology],andtheirapplicationtoagricultureandtheusefularts…Atpresentitiswonderfultoseehowentirelytheyresignthemselvestoprecedent:customisthestrongestlawtothem.5

WILLIAMWILBERFORCE(1759–1833)

Everytwentiethyear,theBritishEastIndiaCompanyhadtorenewitscharterwithParliament.In1793,WilliamWilberforceusedthisrenewalapplicationtopresentGrant’scaseformissionstoParliament.WilberforceplacedGrant’sresolutionbeforetheHouseofCommons.TheycontendedthatitwasimmoraltoleaveIndiatothemercyoftradersandsoldiers.AccordingtotheBible,BritainasaChristiannationhadanobligationbeforeProvidence.Therefore,ParliamentshouldasktheEastIndiaCompanytoallowmissionary-educatorstoserveIndia.*WilberforcewonthevoteintheHouseofCommonsbutlostitintheHouseofLords.Hewasopposed

bythelucrativeAfricanslavetradeconductedbytheBritishCompany.ManyLordsandMPs(membersofParliament)ownedstockinAfricanandIndiancompanies.Theywantednomissionariestointerferewiththeireconomicinterests.AfterhisdefeatinParliament,Wilberforcewrotetoafriend:“Itisashocking

ideathatweshouldleavesixtymillionsofourfellowsubjects,nayofourtenants(forwecollectaboutseventeenmillionsterlingfromtherentoftheirlands),toremaininastateofbarbarismandignorance,theslavesofmostcruelanddegradingsuperstitions.”6Wilberforce’s parliamentary battle continued for twenty years. Grant became a member of

Wilberforce’sinnercircle,theClaphamSect.Thathelpedhimbecomeadirectorandthenthechairmanofthe East India Company. From this position Grant started sending Simeon’s Cambridge protégés ascompanychaplainstoIndia.TheseCambridgemenincludedsomeofhistory’sgreatestBibletranslatorsandpromoters.HenryMartyn(1781–1812)foundhisplaceinhistorybytranslatingtheNewTestamentintoUrduand

Persian.HisUrduworkfoundedthedevelopmentofmymothertongue,Hindi.MartynalsorevisedtheArabicBible.ClaudiusBuchanan(1766–1815)servedasvice-provostofIndia’sfirstBritishcollege,FortWilliam.ThereheoversawandpromotedthedevelopmentofIndia’smodernlanguagesviaBibletranslation.Later,GrantbecameamemberofParliament.Theirparliamentarybattleformissionswasfinallywonin1813.TheCrownconditionedthecompany’scharteronallowingmissionariestofunctioninIndiaandtoinvestfromitsannualprofitsonehundredthousandrupeestoeducateIndians.

WILLIAMCAREY(1761–1834)

In1792,whileGrantsoughttoawakenParliamentandchurch,WilliamCarey,ayoungcobblerturnedlinguist,publishedwhatbecamethemanifestoofmodernWesternProtestantmissions:“AnEnquiryintotheObligationofChristianstoUseMeansfortheConversionoftheHeathen.”HeinquiredwhetherJesus’ancientcommandwasstillbindingonhis followers—togo intoall theworld,makedisciplesofallnations, and teach them to obey all that God had commanded.7 Carey focused on the missionaryobligation,notonIndia,perse.HewaswritingforcommonChristians,notparliamentarians.Thus,hisarguments were explicitly biblical. As Grant, Cary advocated teaching the gospel to transform theuncivilizedworld.In1793CareyleftforIndiatobecomethefatherofvernaculareducation.RunbyJoshuaMarshman,the

mission’s1818college8atSeramporewasIndia’sfirstvernacularcollege.Carey,themission’sleader,taughthalfofeachweekatSeramporeandtherestatCalcutta’sFortWilliam.Oneofhistory’sgreatestBibletranslators,Careybecameamodelforcountlessmissionary-educators.Besideshislinguisticwork,Careyregularlylecturedonscienceandastronomy,andheexcelledinbotany,gardening,forestry,andagriculture.Floodshavesincewashedawayhisgarden.ThestonespecimenshecollectedfromacrossIndia,however,arestillondisplayathiscollege,remindingusthatIndia’sscientificinterestbeganwiththeBible’sarrival.Carey’s influenceonIndianreformers likeRajaRammohunRoytriggeredIndia’sRenaissance.

RAJARAMMOHUNROY(1772–1833)

The100,000rupeesthatParliamentrequiredtheEastIndiaCompanytospendoneducationstartedIndia’s“languagecontroversy.”*EveryonefamiliarwithEurope’sReformationagreedthattheIndianmindcouldnotprogressinsecularmatterswithoutdevelopinghervernaculars.ButneitherHindupunditsnorMuslimmullahswantedtodevelopvernaculars.9TheOrientalistBritishscholarslobbiedforpromotingIndia’sclassicallanguages:SanskritfortheHindus;ArabicandPersianfortheMuslims.Thecompanyagreedtostart a Sanskrit college.** The fiercest opposition came from the renowned Sanskrit scholar, RajaRammohunRoy,whosawitwouldkeepIndiainperpetualdarkness.In1832,hewroteapowerfullettertotheBritishgovernment,arguingthat

[funding]theSangscritsystemofeducationwouldbethebestcalculatedtokeepthiscountryindarkness,ifsuchhadbeenthepolicyofthe British Legislature. But as the improvement of the native population is the object of the Government, it consequently ought topromoteamoreliberalandenlightenedsystemofinstruction,embracingmathematics,naturalphilosophy,chemistryandanatomy,withother useful sciences which may be accomplished with the sum proposed by employing a few gentlemen of talents and learningeducatedinEurope,andprovidingacollegefurnishedwiththenecessarybooks,instrumentsandotherapparatus.10

Roy’sproposalechoedGrant’sviewandwaschampionedbythe“Anglicists,”againsttheOrientalists.

TheAnglicistsbelievedthat thebestwaytostrengthenIndia’svernacularswastoeducateaclassofIndians who knew English and could translate European knowledge into living Indian languages.AlexanderDuff(1806–78),aScottishmissionary,startedanEnglishmediumcollegeinCalcuttain1830.HebecamethemostimportantAnglicist.Hiscollege,foundedwithWilliamCarey’sblessing,hadbeenaninstanthitwithIndians.Duff’steachersandstudentshadanadvantageoverCarey;theydidnotneedEnglishbookstranslated

before teaching and learning. Indians who knew English could study science, literature, history,philosophy, and economics. Adam Smith’s capitalism became immensely popular, even though itunderminedtheeconomicphilosophyinherentintheHinducastesystem.Duff’ssuccessfulexperimentbecameofficialBritishpolicy,largelyduetohisyoungevangelicalfriendCharlesTrevelyan.

CHARLESTREVELYAN(1807–86)

Trevelyan, a British East India Company civil servant, spelled out unequivocally that the aim of theevangelicals’ educational mission was to end the British rule in India. His influential book On theEducationofthePeopleofIndia(1838)wasblunt:

TheexistingconnectionbetweentwosuchdistantcountriesasEnglandandIndia,cannot,inthenatureofthingsbepermanent:noeffortofpolicycanpreventthenativesfromultimatelyregainingtheirindependence.Buttherearetwowaysofarrivingatthispoint.Oneoftheseisthroughthemediumofrevolution;theother?throughthatofreform….[Revolution]mustendinthecompletealienationofmindandseparationofinterestsbetweenourselvesandthenatives; theother[reform]inapermanentalliance,foundedonmutualbenefitand goodwill. . . . weshall exchange profitablesubjects for stillmore profitable allies . . . trained by us to happiness andindependence, and endowed with our learning and political institutions, India will remain the proudest monument of Britishbenevolence.11

HowcouldacivilservantbesodaringastoadvocateBritaineducatingIndiatoendBritishruleand

expect Britain’s parliament to endorse his passion? Trevelyan was married to the sister of ThomasBabington,LordMacaulay—amemberoftheSupremeCouncilthatgovernedIndia.LordMacaulaylivedwithCharlesandHannah.MacaulayhadalreadyarguedthecaseforIndia’slibertybeforeParliamentinLondon—fiveyearsbeforeTrevelyanpennedthoseamazinglines.

LORDMACAULAY(1800–59)

WilberforceandGrantpassedthetorchforIndia’semancipationontotheirsuccessorsinParliament,Lord Macaulay and Charles Grant Jr. These young men grew up as the Clapham Sect’s children.Wilberforce’slongparliamentarybattleagainsttheslavetradewasfinallywonbyMacaulay’sspeechin1833.ThatwasalsoarenewalyearfortheEastIndiaCompany’scharter.Macaulay served as the secretary to the East India Company’s board. Charles Grant Jr. was the

company’s chairman. Grant drafted the new charter, and Macaulay helped Parliament to accept theimplicationsofthemissionaryenterpriseviaeducation.Hisrhetoricwasatitsnoblest.Hisappealstothepathof“duty,”“wisdom,”and“nationalhonor”makesenseonlyinthecontextofasharedworldviewshapedbytheBible.NootherinvaderinIndia—Aryan,Greek,orMuslim—everhadasimilarsenseofduty.

ArewetokeepthepeopleofIndia,ignorantinorderthatwemaykeepthemsubmissive?Ordowethinkthatwecangivethemknowledgewithoutawakeningambition?Ordowemeantoawakenambitionandtoprovideitwithnolegitimatevent?…Thepathofdutyisplainbeforeus:anditisalsothepathofwisdom,ofnationalprosperity,ofnationalhonor….ThedestiniesofourIndianempirearecoveredwiththickdarkness.Itisdifficulttoformanyconjectureastothefatereservedforastatewhichresemblesnootherinhistory,andwhichformsbyitselfaseparateclassofpoliticalphenomena.Thelawswhichregulateitsgrowthanditsdecayarestillunknowntous.ItmaybethatthepublicmindofIndiamayexpandunderoursystemtillithasoutgrownthatsystem;thatbygoodgovernmentwemayeducateoursubjectsintoacapacityforbettergovernment;that,havingbecomeinstructedinEuropeanknowledge,theymay,insomefutureage,demandEuropeaninstitutions.Whethersuchadaywillcome,Iknownot.ButneverwillIattempttoavertitortoretardit.Wheneveritcomes,itwillbetheproudestdayinEnglishhistory.12

WhywouldParliamentacceptsucharadicalmission?NoteveryonewasmotivatedbyMacaulay’s

moral ideals. After Wilberforce’s four-decade-long “culture war,” however, few had the courage todefendslavery.ThedebateonIndianpolicyoccurredagainstthebackdropoftheAmericanRevolution,whichendedBritishrule.JustastheBiblehadliberatedEngland,ithadbeenthemoralforcebehindtheGreatAwakening,whichlaunchedtheAmericanRevolution.Macaulay’saudienceinParliamentmayhavedislikedhisideas,yettheyknewtheycouldnotpreventIndiansfromgettingtheBible,andthattheBiblewouldfuelthefiresoffreedom.Oneyearafterdeliveringhishistoricspeech,MacaulaycametoIndiatohelpthecompanyimplement

hisrecommendations.Asthegoverningcouncil’slegalmember,hewasaskedtoresolvethelanguagecontroversy.MacaulaylistenedtoallsidesandruledonFebruary2,1835, thatEnglishwouldbetterserveIndianvernacularsthanSanskrit,Arabic,orPersian.Therefore,herecommendedthatpublicfundsimpart English education to Indians, who could enrich vernaculars. Macaulay wrote in his famous“Minute,”whichhasbeenmorecondemnedthanreadinIndia:

[I]tisimpossibleforus,withourlimitedmeans,toattempttoeducatethebodyofthepeople.Wemustatpresentdoourbesttoformaclasswhomaybeinterpretersbetweenusandmillionswhomwegovern;aclassofpersons,Indianinbloodandcolour,butEnglishintaste,inopinions,inmorals,andinintellect.Tothatclasswemayleaveittorefinethevernaculardialectsofthecountry,toenrichthosedialectswithtermsofscienceborrowedfromtheWesternnomenclature,andtorenderthembydegreesfitvehiclesforconveyingknowledgetothegreatmassofthepopulation.13

The 1833 charter, which Macaulay and Grant Jr. piloted through Parliament, asked the East India

CompanytoappointIndiansatthehighestlevelsofadministration.Yetby1853thecompanyhadnotyethiredanyIndians,notbecauseofprejudicebutbecauseIndiahadnoqualifiedgraduates.Bythistime,veterans likeDuff,Macaulay,andTrevelyanwereback inBritain.Theyproposed thesolution: Indiashouldhaveuniversities.InspiteofoppositionfromcompanyheavyweightssuchasphilosopherJohnStuartMill(1806–73),the

Christian campaign for education won the day. A devout evangelical, Sir Charles Wood, headed thecommitteethatwrotethe“EducationalDespatch”[sic]of1854.ThatledtotheestablishmentofthefirstthreeuniversitiesinIndiain1857.AllahabadUniversitywasbornthreedecadeslater.HinduandMuslimsoldiersintheBritisharmyrevoltedagainsttheRajinthegreatIndianmutinyof

1857.TodriveouttheBritishfromIndiansoil,theymassacredEnglishmen,women,andchildren.TheBritishretaliatedwithbrutalforceandsuppressedthemutiny.Duetothemutiny,thecompany’smonopolyrulewasendedandtheBritishcrownassumeddirectresponsibilityforgoverningIndia.ThatgaveliberalProtestants(whogradually turnedintosecularhumanists)anopportunity to takeover thestate-fundededucation.TheliberalChristianswereabletoblametheevangelicalsforignitingthefireforIndia’sfreedom.The

charge had credible grounds. India’s freedom had been a stated goal of the evangelicals and theirdescendants. They had upset Indians by opposing traditional beliefs and practices, such as widowburning, infanticide,untouchability, templeprostitution,polygamy,and idolatry.EvangelicalshadheldimportantpositionsintheEastIndiaCompanyfordecadesandhadsupportedtheconversionofHindus

andMuslimstoChrist.Atthefinaltriumphoftheireducationalcampaign,Bible-believingChristianslosttheirpowertomoldtheinstitutiontheyhadcreated.Once liberal Protestants gained control of the university movement, they undermined the spiritual

essenceoftheBible,promotingonlyitsintellectualandsocialfruit.TheydoubtedtheBible’sreliabilitybutchampioneditsprinciplesofhumandignity,equality,andrights;itsmoralityandrationality,whichGrant had desired for India; its ideas of nationalism, civility, and justice, which William Carey saidneededtobespread;anditsideasoffreedomunderlawaschampionedbyMacaulayandTrevelyan.Thequestion is,whydid theBiblepromoteeducationwithsuchseculargoals? The Bible has a

uniquely “this world” spirituality. It teaches that God created Adam and Eve to live in an earthlyparadise. Even after our fall into sin, God wants to “walk” with us during our earthly sojourn. Thesorrows,“thornsandthistles,”oneartharearesultofhumansin.FearofGod,wisdom,andrighteousnessexaltnations.Jesuspromisedthatthemeekshallinherittheearth.14By1885,thiswatered-downbiblicaleducationhadcreatedaclassofeducatedIndians.Theretired

BritishcivilservantAllanOctavianHume(1829–1912)inspiredthemtoestablishtheIndianNationalCongress. That congress led the movement for India’s independence. Graduates from Calcutta andBombaystartedit,butAllahabadeclipsedtheminimportanceforIndia’sliberation.Itseducationalandpoliticalcultureforgedbyitsmunicipality,HighCourt,university,press,andastrategiclocationgaveIndiafiveofherfirstsevenprimeministers.*ThisstoryofIndia’seducationalrevolutionismerelyillustrative.Duringthenineteenthandtwentieth

centuries, Western missions repeated this process throughout most of the non-Western world. Theybirthed,financed,andnurturedhundredsofuniversities,thousandsofcolleges,andtensofthousandsofschools.Theyeducatedmillionsandtransformednations.Thisgigantic,globalmissionwasinspiredandsustained by one book—the Bible. In return, poorly informed gentlemen, such as Arun Shourie, haveattackedtheBibleandWesternmissions.

THEBIBLEANDEUROPEANEDUCATION

Just as Islamic invasions ended India’s Buddhist learning in the second millennium, the barbarianconquests virtually ended Europe’s classical education in the first. Though never completely lost,educationwassodepressed that thefifth to theninthcenturiesaresometimescalledEurope’s“DarkAges.”Illiteracywasthenorminmostoftheworld,untilthemissionarymovementbegantransformingourworld.SecularscholarsfondlyclaimthatGreeksandRomansfirstinventeduniversities.Buthistorianslike

Charles Haskins point out that although Greeks and Romans had brilliant writers and teachers, theyestablishednopermanentinstitutions,nolibraries,andnoscholarlyguilds.15During the medieval era, learning survived in Europe in isolated Christian monasteries before

cathedrals started schools to train men to meet the needs of Christian institutions. Influenced byvisionariessuchasSt.Augustine,bishopofHippo(AD354–430),FlaviusMagnusAureliusCassiodorus(AD490–585),andAniciusManliusSeverinusBoethius(AD480–524),somemonasteriesandcathedralschoolsgrewintouniversities.ThemostinfluentialsyllabusformedievaleducationwasSt.Augustine’streatiseonChristianlearning,

DeDoctrinaChristiana.Hetaughtthatallthesciencesknowntopaganphilosopherswereusefulforinterpreting the Bible. Therefore, students ought to be taught languages, history, grammar, logic, andsciences.ThesestudiesbroughtstudentstothedoorofarichcountryofspiritualtruthfoundintheBible.The ultimate goal of scholarship was to dig into the scriptural mine of knowledge. “The work ofinterpretationwasascientificlabor,notamatterofluckyinspiration,”16eveniftheinterpretationwasconveyedinallegoryandimagery.Thefruitofsuchbiblicalscholarshiphadtobeconveyedtotheworld;

therefore,everystudentneededtostudytheartofrhetoric,taughtbymasterssuchasCicero.Cassidorus (AD 485–585) developed an alternative syllabus in his treatise Divine and Secular

Learning.He“adoptedAugustine’sviewoftheunityofsecularsciencesintheserviceoftheBiblicalinterpretation.”17Butthewayheorganizedhissyllabusmadeitpossibleforstudentsandteacherstofocuseither on secular or sacred learning without focusing on their relationship to each other, withoutintegratingthemintoaworldview.Thereforeitspopularitygraduallydeclined.Boethius(AD480–ca.524/525)wasthethirdinfluentialauthor.Justasthesunwassettingoverthe

Roman Empire, he attempted to translate all of Greek learning into Latin. His works influenced theintellectual life of the eleventh-century church and promoted Aristotle. Thanks to reinforcement byMuslimscholars,Aristotlebecameimmenselypopularduringthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturies.Butin spite of many positive contributions, Aristotle’s authoritarian influence prevented Europe fromexperiencingthepoweroftheBibleuntilthesixteenth-centuryReformation.Europe’sintellectuallife,obviously,wasmorecomplexthancanbediscussedhere.Oxfordhistorian

SirRichardWilliamSouthern(1912–2001)observedthat“theeleventh-centurymonasticscholarwrotehisworksintheintervalsbetweenchurchserviceswhichwereladenwithreadingsfromtheBible.”18Inthe twelfth century, however, Bible reading declined, being replaced by special lessons for a largenumber of saints’ days. Archbishop Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556) complained that the Bible wasreplaced by “Stories, and Legends, with multitudes of Responds, Verses, vain Repititions,Commemorations,andSynodals.”19In schools, Bible commentaries left little time to read the Bible itself. Nevertheless, studying the

Bible’sinterpretationsremainedcentraltoallschooling.Southernwrote:

ItwasintheSchoolsthattheBiblicalinterpretationoftheFatherswerecollectedtogetherinaconvenientformandattachedtotherelevantsectionofthetext.TheOrdinaryGloss,theearliestofallthetwelfth-centuryworksconsolidatingpastlearning,wasoneoftheindispensablehand-booksforstudy.EverywheretheBiblicaltextwascommentedon,andbecamethestartingpointfordiscussionsofmanykinds—grammatical,dialectical,theologicalandhistorical.Thetwelfth-centuryschoolswerenotcentersofresearchintothemysticalsensesofScripturesofthekindwhichSt.Augustinehadurgedscholarstoundertake.ButtheymadetheBiblicaltextinallitsmany meanings more familiar than ever before . . . They made the Bible . . . [a] part of the idiom of both secular and divineliterature.20

Again,thequestionis,whydidtheBible,anAsianbook,retainitsholdovertheWesternmindeven

aftermostofGreek,Roman,andIslamicliteraturebecameavailable?Twofactorsareimportant:

1.MEDIEVALEDUCATIONWASARELIGIOUSENTERPRISE.VirtuallyalleducationwasChurcheducation.H.G.Wellsgrudginglyadmitted,

The Catholic Church provided what the Roman Republic had lacked, a system of popular teaching, a number of universities andmethods of intellectual communication. By this achievement it opened the way to the new possibilities of human government . . .possibilitiesthatarestillbeingapprehendedandworkedout…ButthoughitiscertainthattheCatholicChurch,throughitspropaganda,itspopularappeals,itsschoolsanduniversitiesopeneduptheprospectofthemoderneducationalstateinEurope,itisequallycertainthat theCatholicChurchnever intended todoanythingof thesort. Itdidnotsendoutknowledgewith itsblessings; it let it looseinadvertently.21

How,why,andwhendidtheChurch-ownededucationbecomeavailabletoeveryone?Inamomentwe

will see the role Reformers such as Martin Luther and John Amos Comenius played in transformingmedieval education into modern. First, we need to comprehend why the Bible remained central toeducationevenaftertheologiansbecamefascinatedwithAristotleandBiblereadingdeclinedinschoolsandchurches.

2.THEBIBLEISAUNIQUELIBRARY.

TheBibleremainedkeytoeducationbecauseitisalibrary—auniquecollectionofbooksselectedwithextremecare.Thesixty-sixbooksofthetraditionalBiblewerewrittenbyatleastfortyauthors,oversixteenhundredyears,inthreedifferentlanguages,yettheytellonestory.*Thismetanarrativebeginswithcreationandendswithre-creation.Anamazingfeatureofthislibraryisthatitsbooksgiveanexpanding,progressive,yetcoherentviewof

lifeandtheworld.Itpresentsaconsistentyetunfoldingworldviewthatexplainsrealityandthehumansituation.Itgivespurposetoanabsurd-lookinglife,meaningtothehumanquestformorals,andhopeinthefaceofawfulevil.ItinspiresfaithinGod,inauniversethatseemstobegovernedbyrandomchance,ifnotcapriciousfateorfortune.Monksdidnotstudyorteachbecausetheywerelookingforjobs.TheystudiedbecausetheBibleaskedthemtoseektheknowledgeoftruth.

THEREFORMATIONOFEDUCATION

THECALLFORREFORM:MARTINLUTHERModerneducationbeganwithMartinLuther’scallforacompleteoverhaulofmedievaleducation.He

madehispassionatepleain1520in“AnOpenLettertotheChristianNobility.”“Ibelieve,”saidLuthertoGermanaristocracy,“thatthereisnoworkmoreworthyofpopeoremperorthanathoroughreformoftheuniversities.Andontheotherhand,nothingcouldbemoredevilishordisastrousthanunreformeduniversities.”22 Luther observed that Church-owned-and-operated Renaissance universities werebecoming“placesfortrainingofyouthinthefashionsofGreekculture.”Theywereinstitutions“wherelooselivingispracticed,wherelittleistaughtoftheHolyScripturesandChristianfaith,andwhereonlytheblind,heathenteacherAristotlerulesfarmorethanChrist.”23Luther knew and taught Aristotle. Luther believed that for reform to happen, “Aristotle’s Physics,

Metaphysics,ConcerningtheSoul,andEthics,whichhithertohavebeenthoughttobehisbestbooks,shouldbecompletelydiscardedalongwithall therestofhisbooks thatboastaboutnature,althoughnothingcanbelearnedfromthemeitheraboutnatureortheSpirit.”24LutherwouldonlykeepAristotle’sLogic,Rhetoric,andPoetics—withoutcommentaries.25Luthernextthrewouttheentirecourseoncanon(orChurch)law,“fromthefirstlettertothelast,”26

because“morethanenoughiswrittenintheBibleabouthowweshouldbehaveinallcircumstances.ThestudyofcanonlawonlyhindersthestudyoftheHolyScriptures.”27Thenhecalledforadrasticpruningofsecularlaw,which“hasbecomeawilderness.”28Lifewouldbealoteasierifthelegaljunglewasmade a carefully trimmed garden. Fewer laws, with “wise rulers, side by side with Holy Scripture,wouldbelawenough.”29Luther left medical reform to experts but targeted theology. “Our dear theologians have saved

themselvesworryandwork.TheyjustlettheBiblealoneandlectureonsentences.”30Reformwouldturnthisupsidedown.“Thenumberofbooksontheologymustbereduced…Itisnotmanybooksthatmakemenlearned,norevenreading.Butitisagoodbookfrequentlyread,nomatterhowsmallitis,thatmakesamanlearnedintheScripturesandgodly.”31Inshort,Lutherarguedthattoreformtheuniversity,theBiblewouldhavetobeputatthecenterofits

curriculum.HisappealtoChristiannobilitywasitselfahistoricmove.Forbetterorforworse,itbegantotransfereducationalauthorityfromtheChurchtothestate.Itbroughtnon-Churchmoney—taxesfrompeopleandgiftsfrommerchantsandotherwealthypeople—intoeducation.Lutherwasnotadvocatingpoliticalcontroloverourminds.Inhisscheme,theWordofGod,notthestate,thedonor,ortheChurch,hadultimateauthorityoverourminds.Theuniversity,theChurch,andthestateweresubjecttotheBible.Nevertheless,rightorwrong,Lutherbeganthetrendofholdingthestateresponsibleforeducation,notjusttheChurch.

Luther’sinitiativeledtocivicleadershipbecominginvolvedwithhighereducationaswellasmassliteracy.TheReformationrequiredlayChristianstoreadtheBibleandjudgewhethertheCatholicChurchorthereformerswereright.ItwasnotenoughforLutherandTyndaletomaketheBibleavailabletopeopleinGermanorEnglish.Peopleneededtoreadintheirownlanguages.Thatcouldnotbedonemerelythroughcathedralschools.Everyparishneededtoeducateeverychild.ThedesiretoreadtheBiblebecamethefuelthatdrovetheengineofEurope’sliteracy.ThisiswhyJohnDewey,whoperhapsdid more than anyone else to secularize American education, advised secularists to move slowly inattackingChristianity.Henoted,

Thesepersons[evangelicalChristians]formthebackboneofphilanthropicsocialinterest,ofsocialreformthroughpoliticalaction,ofpacifism, of popular education. They embody and express the spirit of kindly goodwill toward classes which are at an economicdisadvantageandtowardothernations;especiallywhenthelattershowanydispositiontowardarepublicanformofgovernment…Ithasbeentheelementresponsivetoappealsforthesquaredealandmorenearlyequalopportunitiesforall,asithasunderstoodequalityofopportunity.ItfollowedLincolnintheabolitionofslavery,anditfollowedRooseveltinhisdenunciationof“bad”corporationsandaggregationsofwealth.32

Dewey’sdepictionofAmericaistrueformostcountries.InKerala,India’ssecondmostliteratestate,*thewordforschoolispallikudam—“[thebuilding]nexttothechurch.”

JOHNAMOSCOMENIUS(1592–1670)

MartinLuthercalledforreformingtheuniversitybutwasconsumedwithreformingtheChurch,therefore,many consider John Amos Comenius (Jan Amos Komensky) to be the father of modern education.Comenius was born March 28, 1592, in Nivnice, Moravia, now in the Czech Republic. He diedNovember15,1670,afterservingtheMoravianBrethrenasabishop,writingnearlyninetybooksoneducation,demonstratinghiseducationalphilosophyinseveralcountries,inspiringthebirthoftheRoyalSocietyofScienceinEngland,andhelpingestablishthefirstmodernuniversityatHalle,Germany.HalleUniversitylatermergedwithLuther’stoformWittenberg-HalleUniversity.Asayoungman,Comeniusthoughtthatthemedievalschoolswerethe“slaughterhousesofthemind.”

Hestrovetomakethem“happyworkshopsofhumanity,”an“imitationofheaven.”Comeniusbuiltupontheeducational ideasadvocatedbytheGermanWolfgangRatke(1571–1635), ideasthatwereinturnbasedonthoseoftheBritishphilosopherFrancisBacon.Thesebeganwithprinciplessuchasproceedingfromthingstonames,fromtheparticulartothegeneral,andfromthemothertonguetoforeignlanguages.After studying philosophy and theology, Comenius returned to his native Bohemia as a preacher andteacher.His innovativeschool quickly becamewell-known. During the thirty yearsof religious wars(1618–48),hiscountryfelltotheCatholicforces(1620).HecouldhavekepthisschoolbyconvertingtoCatholicism,buthechosefreedomandfledasarefugee.Comeniusknewwar,hunger,disease,thedeathofhiswifeandchildren,theburningofhisschooland

books,politicaltreachery,anddisappointmentsatthehandsofpoliticiansandrulers.Someofhisbookswerewrittenunderthepoliticalpatronageofkings,otherswhilehidingincoldanddangerouswoods.TheBuddhasawsufferingsecondhand.Comeniusexperienceditfirsthand.Hechosetobea“sufferingservant”ofChrist,followingthemartyredMessiah.Hesoughtformorethaninnerbliss;hewantedtoseeEuropeliberatedfromthekingdomofSatan.Comeniusbelievedthatdisciplingthenextgenerationthrougheducationwouldcreateanewworld.

ComeniussaweducationasameansofformingagainGod’simageinhumanity.HecalledhisbiblicalphilosophyPansophia,integratingallwisdom,secularandsacred,intoabiblicalframework.33SecularhistorianshaveyettocomputeComenius’scontributionstothemodernworld.Thisfatherof

moderneducationisoftenignoredbecauseherarelymadeastatementwithoutjustifyingitfromtheBible.

Allthecharactersreviewedinthischapter—menlikeGrant,Wilberforce,Carey,Roy,Duff,Trevelyan,Macaulay,andMuir—werefollowingComenius,evenifsomeofthemwerenotconsciousofit.NotonlymodernIndia,butalsomodernAmericawasshapedbyComenius’svision.Thedifferenceis that thepioneersofAmericaneducationknewthedebttheyowedComenius.Theyinvitedhimtocometothenewworldtoheaduptheirnewcollege,Harvard,inNewEngland.Comenius’soptimismthrougheducationhadsuchaprofoundimpactonsomePuritansettlersinAmericathattheychosetobecomeaneducationalcommunitybeforebecomingacommercialorindustrialnation.34Intheabsenceofacoherentworldview,seculareducationisfragmentingknowledge.Unrelatedbitsof

informationgivenobasistograspavisionlikeComenius’stochangetheworldthrougheducation.ThesecularuniversityknowsnoMessiahthatpromisesakingdomtothepoor,theweak,thesick,andthesorrowingdestitute.

TURKEY

In1871,theAmericanBoardofCommissionersforForeignMissionssentMaryMillsPatrick(1850–1940)asamissionarytoTurkey.In1875,shewastransferredtoScutari(Üsküdar),anAsiaticsuburbofConstantinople,toteachattheAmericanHighSchoolforGirls,alsoknownas“HomeSchool.”WiththehelpofAmericanphilanthropistCarolineBorden,sheturnedtheschoolintothemodernConstantinopleWomen’s College. It required heroic strength to keep it open through the Balkan Wars, the Turkishrevolution,andWorldWarI.ThroughthosestrugglesitevolvedfromaschoolprimarilyforminorityGreek,Armenian,andBulgarianChristianwomenintoaleadingcenterofhighereducationforTurkishwomenteachingallsortsofusefultrades,includingdentistryandmedicine.TheWomen’sCollegestillexistsaspartofRobertsCollege,servingbothmenandwomen.

KOREA

Theworld’slargestwomen’suniversityisEwhainSeoul,SouthKorea.Itboastsof140,000graduates,21,000students,14colleges,and13graduateschools.Notmuchmorethanacenturyago,SouthKorea’soppressivefeudalsocialorderwasgovernedbytheChosundynasty.Itspoliteculturemockedtheideaofteachinganythingtowomenbeyondcaringfortheirhusbandsandsons.TheKoreanpeninsulawaslittlemorethanskirmishgroundbetweenAsia’stwogiants,ChinaandJapan.EvenmissionarysocietieshadlittleinterestinthekillingfieldsofKorea.ItsdestinychangedwithadiscussioninthesmalltownofRavenna,Ohio,in1883.While the Women’s Foreign Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church discussed

missionaryplansforJapanandChina,anelderlywomanbeseechedherpeersnottooverlookthelittlekingdomnestledbetweenthetwoAsiangiantsontheKoreanpeninsula.Threeyearslater,onMay31,1886, Mary F. Scranton (1832–1909), a fifty-two-year-old Methodist missionary, began Korea’s firstschoolforwomeninahouselocatedinwhatisnowtheChong-dongdistrictofSeoul.Itwasnoteasyforhertofindfemalestudents.Theonlystudentwillingtorisksocialdisapprovalwastheking’sconcubine.By1887,Maryhadsevenstudents,andKoreanemperorGojong’swife,Minbee,namedthenewschoolEwhaHagdangor“PearBlossomSchool.”LaborssuchashershelpedturnthatlittlekingdomintooneofAsia’sgreatestcountries.

BEYONDTHEELITE

ThesnobberyoftheEnglishclasssystemismockedinfilmsandbooks.FewknowthattheBibleinspiredhistory’s most effective challenge to that snobbery through the Sunday school movement launched by

RobertRaikes(1735–1811).Raikes,thecrusadingeditoroftheGloucesterJournal,becamefrustratedwithinefficientjailreforms.

Heconcluded“vicecouldbebetterpreventedthancured.”Avisittotheslumsofhiscityopenedhiseyesto the distressing corruption of children. He shared the problem with Reverend Thomas Stock in thevillageofAshbury,Berkshire.TogethertheyconceivedofaschoolthatcouldberunbyvolunteersonSundays,whenchildrenfrompoorhomeswerenotforcedtowork.Mostwriterswrotefortherich,whohadthemoneytobuybooksandtheleisuretoread.ButJesushadsaidthathehadcometopreachgoodnewstothepoor.RaikesandStockchoseGod’sWordastheircurriculum,andcommittedtoreachingevenstreetchildren.ThisSundayschoolmovementbeganinJuly1780,withMrs.Meredithconductingaschoolinherhome

onSoutyAlley.Olderboysweretrainedtocoachyoungerones.RaikeswrotefourtextbooksaroundtheBiblecore.Graduallygirlswereallowedtoattend.Raikesshoulderedmostofthefinancialburden.OtherschoolsopenedinandaroundGloucester.ThoughRaikesdiedin1811,by1831about25percentofthe1.25millionBritishchildrenwereattendingSundayschools.Englandwason itsway tobecomingaliteratesociety,educatedbyGod’sWord,notbythestate.

RESTORINGHUMANDIGNITYTOTHEDEAFANDTHEBLIND

TheGreeksoftenusedblindboysasgalleyslavesandblindgirlsasprostitutes.Jesus,however,restoredtheir sight. By the fourth century, Christians began opening asylums for the blind. In AD 630, someChristians started a typholocomium (typholos = blind + komeo = take care of) in Jerusalem. In thethirteenthcentury,LouisIXbuilttheHospicedesQuinze-VingtsfortheblindinParis.Bythesixteenthcentury,Christianshadbeguntoteachtheblindtoread,usingraisedlettersonwaxorwood.Educationfortheblindseriouslybeganafter1834,whenLouisBraille,ablindChurchorganist,inventedthesix-dotsystemofembossingletters.TheChristianmissionarymovementcarriedhisinventionaroundtheglobe,challenging traditional neglect and contempt for the blind, inspiring secular establishments to imbibesomeofChrist’sspirit.Darwin’ssecular“survivalofthefittest”philosophywouldneverpayfordevelopinganeducationto

humanizethehandicapped.Everytraditionalcultureleftthemtotheirfateorkarma.Somedeliberatelyexposedhandicappedinfantstodeath.TheBiblealonepresentsacompassionateGodwhohascometothisearthtosaveusfromoursinanditsconsequences—includingsicknessanddeath.Jesusrestoredsighttotheblind.Heopenedtheearsofthedeafandthemouthsofthedumb.Hegavehisdisciplesthepowertolovetheunlovely.Christiansbegantounderstandthateducationplaysacentralroleinrestoringthedignityofthehandicapped.FormaleducationforthedeafbeganwithCharles-Micheldel’Épée(1712–89).ItcametoAmerica

throughThomasGallaudet(1787–1851).Épée,apriestinParis,developedthesignlanguageforthedeaf.In1754,hefinancedandfoundedinParisthefirstpublicdeafschool,the“InstitutionNationaledesSourds-MuetsàParis”(NationalDeaf-DumbInstitute).HissignlanguageenabledFrenchdeafpeopletocommunicatewordsandconcepts.ItinfluencedotherEuropeansignlanguagesandbecamethebasisforAmerican Sign Language through Gallaudet, a graduate of Yale and Andover Theological Seminary.GallaudetbroughtthisinnovationtotheUnitedStatesin1817tohelpthedeafto“hear”Christ’sgospel.He founded the American School for the Deaf at Hartford, which led to the formation of GallaudetUniversityfortheDeafinWashingtonDC.

SECULAREDUCATION

Harvard University is one of the most compelling examples of the symbiosis between the Bible and

education.ThePuritansestablishedthiscollegewithinthefirstdecadeofarrivinginAmerica,beforetheybuiltany industry.TheBibledirectly inspired thefirst123collegesanduniversities inAmerica thattaught secular subjects. The Bible did so because God commanded human beings to establish theirdominionovertheearth.ThestoryofthesecularizationofAmericanuniversitiesiswellpresentedbyGeorgeMarsdeninTheSouloftheAmericanUniversity:FromProtestantEstablishmenttoEstablishedNonbelief.35Whatwillbetheresultsofaself-consciouslyantibiblicaleducation?AworldviewsuchastheBible’sturnedinformationintomeaningfulknowledgeandwisdom.Itgave

educationapurposethatwentbeyondequippingyoungpeopleforjobs.SecularphilosophersrejectedtheBiblebutfoundnoalternativetotheirgraspingthebigpictureoftruth.Theynowknowthat,byitself,thehumanmindcannotfindanswerstothemeaningandpurposeoflifeortheuniverse.Thussecularismisbutatransitoryphase,likeitsearlierincarnation,deism.Christian education (especially Bible-based science, discussed in the next chapter) developed

knowledgeinsmallincrements,likeapuzzle,becauseGodhadalreadygivenusthebigpicture.Secularuniversities have survived because the larger culture had retained the biblical outlook. Now havingrejectedtheBible,theWestistryingtofindmeaningthroughmyths.ItisfollowingJosephCampbell,GeorgeLucas,andJamesCameronandinventingandsellingmyths,asGreecedidafteritrealizedthatafinitemindcannotknowuniversaltruth.BritaingaveuniversitiestoIndiatosetusfree.TheWestisnowgivingitsyouthmythsthatcanonlyenslavethem.ThisisironicbecauseitwastheWest’squestfortruththatbirthedscience.Toscience,therefore,wemustturnnext.*TheHolyTrinityChurchwasapartoftheUniversityofAllahabaduntilafewdecadesago.**ThereisnoSaraswatinow,thoughtheremayhavebeenanundergroundstreamatsomepointinhistory.*TheMogulswereaMuslimdynastythatconqueredandruledlargepartsofIndiafrom1526toabout1761.TheybuiltsomeofIndia’sfinestbuildings,suchastheTajMahal,RedFort,andJamaMasjid.Akbar,thegreatestoftheMoguls,patronizedsomeofourbestpoets,artists,andmusicians.**AshokapillarsareaseriesofmonumentsraisedbytheMauryanemperorAshoka(ruledca.271BCto233BC).*guru:apersonalreligiousteacherandspiritualguideinHinduism.Hinducentersoflearning,suchasVaranasi,Ujjain,orKanchihadlearnedgurusbutdidnothaveeducationalinstitutionscomparabletoauniversity.**Nalanda,nearPatnainBihar,beganasamajorcenterofBuddhistlearningduringtheGuptaperiodinthefifthcenturyafterChrist.Bythetwelfthcentury,itwasintotalruins.***ItincludedPakistanandBangladesh.*madrasa:aschoolwherepeoplegotolearnaboutthereligionofIslam.**PersianwasMogulIndia’sofficiallanguageuntil1837.*Intheeighteenthcentury,educationwasinseparablefrommissionsbecausethechurchprovidedbothreligiousandseculareducation.Indiahadnoteachersforthecompanytohire.*SeramporeCollegedidnotqualifyforthegrantbecauseitwasaprivatecollegerunbytheBaptistmissioninaDanishsettlement,outsidetheBritishjurisdiction.**TheCompanywasalreadyfundingaSanskritcollegeinBenaras.*PanditJawaharlalNehru,LalBahadurShastri,Mrs.IndiraGandhi,ChandraShekhar,andV.P.SinghhadimportantfamilyandpoliticalrootsinAllahabad,thoughnotallofthemstudiedatAllahabadUniversity.*OnegroundforrejectingotherJewishorChristianbooksasnoncanonicalwasthatsomeoftheirteachingsdivergedfromtheonesknowntobeauthoritative.*AccordingtoIndiaToday(July5,1999),Mizoram,India’smostChristianstate(98percent)hasalsobecomeIndia’smostliteratestate(95percent)whileliteracyinKeralais93percent.KeralahastheoldestChristiancommunityinIndia,tracingitsorigintotheapostleThomasinthefirstcenturyafterChrist.

ChapterThirteen

SCIENCE

WHATISITSSOURCE?

AroundthetimeIwasborn,myparentsboughtafarmaboutfiftymilesnorthwestofthediamondminesofPanna.Mycousin,uncle,brother,I,andthenmyfatherfarmeditfornearlyfortyyears.Noneofus,however,evertriedtodigfordiamonds.Whynot?Becausenoonehadeverfoundsuchwealthinourdistrict.Peopleonlytoilfortreasuresiftheybelievethatsuchlabormightleadtorichrewards.Faithmakesadifference.Aculturemayhavecapableindividuals,buttheydon’tlookfor“lawsofnature”iftheybelievethat

natureisenchantedandruledbymillionsoflittledeitieslikearaingod,arivergoddess,oraratdeva.Iftheplanetsthemselvesaregods,thenwhyshouldtheyfollowestablishedlaws?Culturesthatworshipnatureoftenusemagictomanipulatetheunseenpowersgoverningnature.Theydon’tdevelopscienceandtechnologytoestablish“dominion”overnature.Some“magic”mayseemto“work,”butmagiciansdon’tseekasystematic,coherentunderstandingofnature.

• Ancient India produced great surgeons like Sushruta. Why didn’t his tradition develop intoscientificmedicine?

•Asearlyasthefifthcentury,Aryabhatasuggestedthattheearthrotatesonitsaxisandrevolvesaroundthesun.Indianastrologersknewofhistheory,butitdidn’tchangetheirpractices.

•AncientandmedievalIndia’sgeniusformathematicsiswidelyrecognized.AnunknownIndianmathematicianintroducedzero.MathematiciansBrahmagupta(seventhcentury),Mahavira(ninthcentury),andBhaskara(twelfthcentury)wereeonsaheadoftheWest.

Whydidn’tIndianmathematicsbecomethelanguageofscience?Considergrowingupinaculturethatbelievedthattheworldyouseeandtouchisunreal—maya,anillusion,adream.Wouldyoudevoteyourlifetostudythat“unreal”world?Wouldn’tyouseektoescapetheworld?Tomeditateinwardly—“gowithin”yourconsciousness—totryandfind“reality”there?TheChinesemonksandHindusagesdidnotlackability.Theylackedthephilosophicalmotivation.

Theylookedforapsychologicalparadise,forblisswithintheirconsciousness.Untilthesixteenthcentury,theWesternChristianmindalsolookedforapsychologicalorspiritualsalvation.Itwasonlywhenamajor portion of Christendom could read the Bible and take it at face value that it began tounderstandthelossofEdenasalossofearthlyparadise.The West’s passion for science began when the Bible inspired Christians to devote their lives to

recoveringGod’sforgottenmandateforhumanstotakedominionovernature.1ThefirsthistorianoftheRoyal Society of Science, Thomas Sprat (1635–1713), explained that the society’s objective was toenable mankind to reestablish “Dominion over Things.”2 It was this religio-scientific exercise thatcollectedthedatathatshowedtheapparentdesigninnature.Darwinlatertheorizedthatthisdesignmayhaveresultedfromrandomnaturalselection.

Duringthetwentiethcentury,sciencebecameincreasinglyintertwinedwithtechnologyandindustry.However, until the nineteenth century, science was “natural philosophy” or “natural history,” asubdivisionof theology:“natural theology”or“generalrevelation.”Thescientificmethodofstudyingnaturegrewoutoftheology,outofaparticularwayofviewingthematerialworldbasedontheBible.Thiswayassumedthatthephysicaluniversewasreal.ItwasneitheraPlatonic“shadow”noraHindu

maya (illusion). The pioneers of science believed that the material realm was real, not magical,enchanted,orgovernedbyspiritsanddemons.TheyassumeditwasunderstandablebecauseGodcreatedit as rational, ordered, and regulated by natural laws. Those pioneers invested their time, effort,resources,andtheirlivesstudyingthephysicaluniversebecausetheybelievedthatGodcreateditgood.3Itwasnotthecreationofamalevolentdeitytoentrappuresoulsinimpurematter.Thescientificpursuitstartedwiththeassumptionthatpeoplewerecreatedasstewardsofcreation,notthatfateorgodsboundhumanbeings.Byunderstandingnature,wecouldmanageandcontrolittobenefitourfutureandus.This scientific outlook was born in a critique of Aristotelian rationalism. The scientific method

assumesthathumanlogichasvalidity,butitmustbesubservienttoobservedfacts,becausemanisfinite,fallen,andfallible.Scientistsuselogictomakesenseoffacts.Theytheorizetoexplaintheworld.Butforatheorytobescientific,itmustmakequantitativepredictionsthatareempiricallyverifiable,oratleastfalsifiable.Atheoryismodifiedorreplacedifitdoesn’tfitobservedfacts,oriflaterobservationsdon’tmatchitspredictions.Sciencerestsonaparadox.Sciencemusthavetheconfidencethathumanbeingscantranscendnature

(understandit,masterit,andchangeit).Yet,sciencerequireshumility—acceptingthathumansarenotdivine but finite and fallen—prone to sin, error, and hubris. Therefore, science needs more thanAristotelian logic or individual enlightenment. It needs objectivity, observed facts, peer review, andconstant skeptical testing. “As iron sharpens iron, so one man sharpens another.”4 Accumulatingknowledgewithcollection,modeling,andcorrection,requirestheorganizedeffortnotjustofschoolsandthenuniversities,butalsoofascientificcommunity—theassociationandcompetitiveyetcooperativenetworkofpeopledevelopingscience.Sciencehadtorejecttwoopposingbeliefs:1)Thereductionisticideathatmanwasmerelyapartof

nature—acoginthemachine,incapableoftranscendingit;and2)thescience-precludingnotionthatthehumanselfwastheDivineSelfandcouldbeenlightenedonlybyinsightormysticalexperience;thatitcouldbecomeinfinite,knowingeverything,needingnocorrection.TheglobalspreadofWesterneducationmadethisscientificwayofseeingnaturesocommonthatmost

educatedpeopledonotrealizethatthescientificoutlookisapeculiarwayofobservingtheworld—anobjective (“secular”) method molded by a biblical worldview. Science uses objective methods toobserve,organize,andunderstandthenaturalworld.*But thisperspective isneither“natural,”“universal,”nor“commonsense.”It isapeculiarwayof

viewingthings.Europedidnotstumbleuponthescientificmethodthroughrandomtrial,error,andchance.Some individuals in the ancient world may have looked at nature with a scientific outlook, but theirperspectivedidnotbecomeapartoftheirintellectualculture.ThescientificperspectivefloweredinEuropeasanoutworkingofmedievalbiblicaltheologynurtured

bytheChurch.Theologianspursuedscienceforbiblicalreasons.Theirscientificspiritgerminatedduringthe thirteenth and fourteenth centuries and blossomed after the sixteenth-century Reformation—afterEurope became a more literate place, where people could read the Bible themselves and becomeconsciouslybiblical.MyintellectualupbringinggavemeconfusinginformationabouthowtheBibleandsciencerelate.In

TheTaoofPhysics,physicist-turned-mysticFritjofCapraobserved:

ThenotionoffundamentallawsofnaturewasderivedfromthebeliefinadivinelawgiverwhichwasdeeplyrootedintheJudaeo-

Christiantradition.InthewordsofThomasAquinas:“Thereisacertaineternallaw,towit,Reason,existinginthemindofGodandgoverningthewholeuniverse.”

Thisnotionofaneternal,divinelawofnaturegreatlyinfluencedWesternphilosophyandscience.Descarteswroteaboutthesix

lawswhichGodhasputintonature,andNewtonbelievedthatthehighestaimofhisscientificworkwastogiveevidenceofthesixlawsimpresseduponnaturebyGod.5

CapraandpeoplefamiliarwithAldousHuxleyblamedtheBibleforcreatinganecologicalmessby

producing science and technology. Others claimed the Bible and science were incompatible and thatsciencearosefromtheRenaissancerediscoveryofGreeklearning.Sincebothopinions—thattheBiblewasincompatiblewithscienceandthatitwasthesourcebookof

science—couldnotbetrue,Iinvestigatedthematter.IfoundthatthosewhoblamedtheBibleforbirthingmodernscienceatleasthadtheirhistoryright.Forbetterorworse,theBiblecreatedandunderpinnedthescientific outlook. Bible-believing scientists launched the “scientific revolution” of the sixteenth andseventeenthcenturies.Capra’sobservationthatbeliefinthelawsofnaturecamefromtheBiblehasbeenvalidatedbycarefulresearchofFrancisOakley.6TheBibleinspiredthepioneersofsciencetoembarkontheroadtodiscoverthelawsofnature—a

long,tedious,demanding,multigenerationaljourney.TheBibletaughtthatGod“gavetheseaitsboundaryso the waters would not overstep his command.”7 This Lawgiver established “the laws of Nature.”8These laws can be understood because we were created in God’s image to understand and managenature.9Capramerelyaffirmedwhatscientistsandscholarshadconcludedbeforehim.Chatterjee,myatheist

friendatAllahabadUniversity,followedBertrandRussellintobelievingthatatheismwasthesourceofscience. He rejected Hindu polytheism and pantheism as equally antithetical to science. One cannotsimultaneouslyworshipMotherEarthyetruleherbydissecting,understanding,controlling,managing,andchangingher.Scientistshadtoassumethatthecosmosisaninanimate,natural(or“secular”)object.Theyhadtoassumethatinsomeaspectsmancouldtakecareofnaturebyunderstandingandthenmanagingor“rulingover”it.ChatterjeealsorejectedHindupantheism—thateverythingisone(Brahma).Thatmakestheuniverse

eithermayaorthe“dance”ofGod—notGod’s“handiwork”orcraftsmanship.Apaintingoramachineiscrafted.Itreflectsthepainterortheengineerbutisdistinctfromitscreator.Bycontrast,danceandthedancerareone.IfGodandnatureareone,thennaturehasnoLawgiver,norarethere“lawsofnature”tobediscovered.Pantheismmaysaythatnatureisalivingorganism—Gaiaor“MotherEarth.”Nature’s“order”isbut

therhythmofitsdance—unpredictablewithnomathematicallawstobequantified.Chatterjeearguedthatiftheearthisagoddess,thenherwill—notmandatory,scientificlaws—governsher.Russell’satheism,however,raisedaproblem:Whydidn’tChinaproducescience?SomeofChina’s

elitepridedthemselvesinfollowingauniversalessence,orprinciple,calledtheTao;othersbelievedin“yin and yang.” If Russell’s atheism was the presupposition of science, then China ought to havedevelopedsciencebeforeEurope.Thoughbaffledbythegapbetweenhisbeliefandreality,Russellhadthechutzpahtoassert thatsinceChinesecivilizationdidnothavetheBible’sGodwhointervenes innature,itssciencewouldsoonsurpasstheWest’s.No one in our university told us that Russel’s coauthor, Alfred North Whitehead, considered his

argumentscarefullythenshockedWesternintellectualsinhisHarvardLowellLectures(1925).WhiteheaddeclaredthatWesternsciencehadsprungfromtheBible’steachingthatthecosmoswastheproductof“the intelligible rationality of a personal being [God].” The implication was that personal beings—humans—couldunderstandthecosmos.Whiteheadelaborated:

Idonotthink,however,thatIhaveevenyetbroughtoutthegreatestcontributionofmedievalismtotheformationofthescientificmovement.Imeantheinexpugnablebeliefthateverydetailedoccurrencecanbecorrelatedwithitsantecedentsinaperfectlydefinitemanner,exemplifyinggeneralprinciples.Withoutthisbelieftheincrediblelaboursofscientistswouldbewithouthope.Itisthisinstinctiveconviction,vividlypoisedbeforetheimagination,whichisthemotivepowerofresearch—thatthereisasecret,asecretwhichcanbeunveiled.HowhasthisconvictionbeensovividlyimplantedintheEuropeanmind?

WhenwecomparethistoneofthoughtinEuropewiththeattitudeofothercivilizationswhenlefttothemselves,thereseemsbutone

sourceofitsorigin.ItmustcomefromthemedievalinsistenceontherationalityofGod,conceivedaswiththepersonalenergyofJehovah.10

WhiteheadconcludedthatChinafailedtodevelopsciencebecauseformuchofitshistoryitdidnot

haveafirmconvictioninanalmightyCreator.*JosephNeedham(1900–95),aMarxisthistorianwhospent his life investigating Chinese science and civilization, confirmed Whitehead’s views. NeedhamsearchedformaterialisticexplanationsforChina’sfailure.Finally,hisintegrityovercamehisideology.Heconcludedthattherewerenogoodgeographical,racial,political,oreconomicreasonsthatexplainedtheChinesefailuretodevelopscience.TheChinesedidnotdevelopsciencebecauseitneveroccurredtothemthatsciencewaspossible.Theydidnothavesciencebecause“theconceptionofadivinecelestiallaw-giverimposingordinancesonnon-humannatureneverdevelopedinChina.”11Premodern Greeks, Egyptians, Chinese, Indians, and Muslims had many insights into nature; they

observedfacts,notedinformation,developedskills,accumulatedwisdom,andpassedontheirknowledgetoothers.WehavegoodreasonstomarvelattheaccuracywithwhichGreekmathematician,astronomer,geographer,andpoetEratosthenes(ca.276BC–ca.196BC)measuredthecircumferenceoftheearth.HedeterminedastronomicallythedifferenceinlatitudebetweenSyene(nowAswan)andAlexandria,Egypt,wherehewasthelibrarian.OurprincipleoffloatingbodiesisnamedafterArchimedes(287–212BC),who also studied in Alexandria. His mathematical principles of the lever, pulley, and screw areimpressive.Hipparchus(ca.190–120BC),whogreatlyinfluencedPtolemy,calculatedthesolaryeartowithinsixminutesandfourteenseconds.Hislunarmonthwasoffonlybyonesecond.Despitetheirimpressiveachievements,theancientsdidnotdevelopacultureofscience.Whilethey

observed accurately, they did not model the world. They made no effort to empirically verify theirexplanations.NotevenCopernicus(1473–1543)formedapreliminaryheliocentrictheory.ItwasdeeplyChristianIsaacNewton(1642–1727)whomodeledplanetaryorbitsduetogravity.Withoutexplanation,onecanhavefactsbutnotscience.AsCharlesDarwinnoted:

Aboutthirtyyearsagotherewasmuchtalkthatgeologistsoughttoobserveandnottheorize;andIwellremembersomeonesayingthatatthatrateamanmightaswellgointoagravel-pitandcountthepebblesanddescribethecolours.Howodditisthatanyoneshouldnotseethatallobservationmustbefororagainstsomeviewifitistobeofanyservice.12

Whentheancientstriedtoexplaintheworld,theyusedintuition,*logic,mythmaking,mysticism,or

rationalism—detached from empirical observation. For example, Aristotle’s (384–322 BC) intuition-basedlogicpositedthatifyoudroptwostonesfromacliff,thenatwice-as-heavystonewouldfalltwiceasfastasthelighterstone.NoAristotelianscholar—Greek,Egyptian,Roman,Christian,orMuslim—ever actually tested Aristotle’s theory by dropping two stones. Finally, biblically grounded GalileoGalilei(AD1564–1642)actuallytestedanddisprovedAristotle’sassumptionbyshowingthattwoballsofdifferingmasslandedtogether.*Intuition, logic, observation, experimentation, information, techniques, speculation, and the study of

authoritativetextsexistedbeforethesixteenthcentury.Bythemselvesthesedonotconstitutesustainablescience.IfoneinsiststhatancientdiscoveriesprovethatsciencepredatestheBible,thenonehastoadmitthatnonbiblicalculturesstifledandkilledthatcommendablebeginning.OnlyinEuropedidastrologyturnintoastronomy,alchemyintochemistry,andmathematicsintothelanguageofscience.Thenonlyinthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies—after theWesternChristianmindtookseriouslyGod’scommand:

“Befruitful,andmultiply,andreplenishtheearth,andsubdueit:andhavedominionoverthefishofthesea,andoverthefowloftheair,andovereverylivingthingthatmovethupontheearth.”13ThecommandtoruleovertheearthhadbeenintheBibleforafewthousandyears.Whywasthereno

sustainablescienceuntilthesixteenthcentury?ProfessorHarrisonsaidsciencestartedwhenChristiansbegantoreadtheBibleliterally:

OnlywhenthestoryofcreationwasdivestedofitssymbolicelementscouldGod’scommandtoAdamberelatedtoworldlyactivities.IftheGardenofEdenwerebutaloftyallegory,asPhilo,Origen,andlaterHughofSt.Victorhadsuggested,therewouldbelittlepointinattemptingtore-establishaparadiseonearth.IfGod’scommandtoAdamtotendthegardenhadprimarilysymbolicsignificance,asAugustinehadbelieved,thentheideathatmanwastore-establishparadisethroughgardeningandagriculturewouldsimplynothavepresenteditselfsostronglytotheseventeenth-centurymind.14

TheChurchpersecutedsomeindividuals,likeGalileo,whowerescientists.ButtheChurchisfarmore

guiltyofburningBibles,Bibletranslators,andtheologians,thanofbanningsciencebooksorharassingscientists. Is Christianity thus opposed to theology or not responsible for compiling, preserving, andpropagatingtheBible?Religiousleadersinmycountry,India,neverpersecutedaGalileo.Doesthatgivemearighttoboast?

Wellintothenineteenthcenturyourteacherstaught—inaBritish-fundedcollege—thattheearthsatonthebackofagreattortoise!15WeneverpersecutedaGalileobecausetheHindu,Buddhist,oranimistIndianeverproducedone.Thosewhohavenochildrenneverexperienceconflictwiththeirteenagers.TheChurchdidn’texecutescientists for theirscience.Theconflicts (“heresies”)were theological,

moral,social,personal,political,oradministrative.Sciencewasbornintheuniversity—aninstitutioninventedbytheChurch.AlmostallearlyscientistsworkedinChurch-relateduniversities,underbishops.Manyofthemweretheologiansandbiblicalexegetes.GiordanoBruno(1548–1600)isoftenheldupasascientistkilledbytheChurch.TheChurchsawhimasarenegademonkandaHermeticsorcerer,whodida bit of astronomy but made no contribution to science. Bruno taught a speculative, immanentistphilosophy*ofaworldsoulwithaninfinitenumberofworlds.Hisimmanentism,fromGreeceandIslam,hinderedscience.Yes,themedievalchurchandstatefailedtoinventanindependentjudiciarytowhichconvictscould

appealforjustice.Onecancriticizethemfornotrespectinghumanrights.Thatwouldalsoapplytoeveryotherculture.Thatdoesn’tdemonstratethattheChurchopposedscienceperse.Manyuniversitiesandindustriestreattheirscientistsandnonscientistsunjustly.Exceptforanindependentjudiciary—itselfafruitof theBible—today’sinstitutionswouldbejustasoppressiveasmedievalones.16Persecutingasubordinateisabuseofpower,notoppositiontoscience.Galileowasrevolutionary,brilliant,andpopular—butabrasive.Hewasinvestigated(1616),yetfeted

inRomebycardinalsandassuredbyPopePaulVofhisgoodwillandsupport.Thoughwarnedtosticktoscience and treat Copernicus as a hypothesis, Galileo wrote his Letter toCastelli, his overzealousstudent,arguingCopernicus’sheliocentricsystemwasconsistentwiththeBible.Aristotelianprofessorswere jealous of Galileo’s popularity and hurt by his insults. The Inquisition first dismissed theiraccusationthatGalileo’sLettercontradictedtheBible.InDialogueontheTwoGreatWorldSystems(1632),GalileobelittledtheAristoteliansandadvocated

Copernicus as a thesis rather than hypothesis. AfterDialogue was printed with permission, the LigaaccusedGalileoofhavingthefoolSimpliciospoutPopeUrban’sviewsoncosmology.GalileowasPopeUrban VIII’s personal friend; however, mocking his protector and rejecting advice proved too much.Summonedagain,GalileoreturnedtoRome,thoughVeniceofferedhimasylumandGermanycouldhaveshelteredhim.*TheInquisition(1633)foundlittletheologicallywrong,butbannedGalileo’sDialogueandsentencedhimforbreachingunpublishedconditionsfrom1616.Bible translators like Tyndale were hanged and burned. Galileo, the scientist, had his sentence

commutedtohousearrest,hostedbythearchbishopofSiena.HereturnedtohisownvillaatArcetiundersupervision, allowing him to finish his Two New Sciences (1638). The Vatican allowed Galileo’sDialoguetobeprintedin1743andformallylifteditsbanin1822.LeoXIII(1891)said:“[T]heChurchandherPastorsarenotopposedtotrueandsolidscience…but

thattheyembraceit,encourageit,andpromoteitwiththefullestpossiblededication….Truthcannotcontradicttruth,andwemaybesurethatsomemistakehasbeenmadeeitherintheinterpretationofthesacredwords,orinthepolemicaldiscussionitself.’”PopeJohnPaulII(1992)said:“Galileo,asincerebeliever,showedhimselftobemoreperceptive[on

Bible interpretation] than the theologians who opposed him.” “If Scripture cannot err,” he wrote toBenedetto Castelli, “certain of its interpreters and commentators can and do so in many ways.” Heaffirmedthat“Galileo…understoodwhyonlytheSuncouldfunctionasthecentreofthe…planetarysystem.”17Powercorrupts,andtheChurchabuseditspower.Thatdoesn’tprovetheBibleisagainstscience.Is

governmentopposed to justiceandhumanrightsbecausekings,presidents,dictators,andcourtshavepervertedjusticeandviolatedhumanrights?Torepeat:SciencewasborninuniversitiesgovernedbytheChurch.ItblossomedundertheChurch’spatronageandnowhereelse.Controversies such as the clash between evolution, design, and creation are not conflicts between

scienceandreligion.Evolutionbeganasabrilliantlyimaginativetheorytoexplaintheoriginofspecieswithout appealing to God. While there is some objective support for “microevolution” or variationswithin a species, the primary controversy is over the feasibility of macroevolution—and science’sphilosophicalpresuppositions.PhilosophicalatheismhashijackedDarwin’selegantbutunprovedtheoryasaweaponinits ideologicalcrusade.GeneticistRichardLewontinepitomizedmodernevolutionaryscienceinreviewingCarlSagan:

We take the side of science in spite of the patent absurdity of some of its constructs, inspite of its failure to fulfill many of itsextravagantpromisesofhealthandlife,inspiteofthetoleranceofthescientificcommunityforunsubstantiatedjust-sostories,becausewehaveapriorcommitment,acommitmenttomaterialism.Itisnotthatthemethodsandinstitutionsofsciencesomehowcompelustoacceptamaterialexplanationofthephenomenalworld,but,onthecontrary,thatweareforcedbyouraprioriadherencetomaterialcausestocreateanapparatusofinvestigationandasetofconceptsthatproducematerialexplanations,nomatterhowcounter-intuitive,nomatterhowmystifyingtotheuninitiated.Moreover,thatmaterialismisanabsolute,forwecannotallowaDivineFootinthedoor.18

InhisbookFortheGloryofGod:HowMonotheismLedtoReformations,Science,Witch-Huntsand

theEndofSlavery, Rodney Stark shows how Darwinism, once a brilliant and plausible theory, hasbecome“arrogantoccultism”19—asecularbigotry.Contemporaryhighpriestsofacademiapropagatethetheoryofmacroevolutionas“fact”;yet,oneandahalfcenturiesafterDarwin,scientistsstillhavenoquantitativeexplanationforhowmajorbiologicalgroupsoriginated,norfortheOriginOfLife(OOL).How can unintelligent “chance” produce new organisms with previously nonexistent organs? For

example,throughintelligentbreedingwecanproducebigcatsorsmallcats,browncatsorblackcats—butnotflyingcats.Scientistshadhopedtofindfossilevidenceformacro–evolution.Yetfossilrecordsshowbiologicaltaxaappearingfullyformedandcontinuingvirtuallyunchangedtothepresentoruntiltheybecomeextinct.Evolutionarybiologistshavestridentlyinsistedthatmacroevolutionisunquestionable.Buttheyface

rapidlymountingevidenceofincrediblebiochemicalcomplexityandgenomicinformation.BiochemistMichaelBeheevaluatedmutationratesandfoundthattworequiredmutationsareallthatrandommutationcanachieveunderearthlikeconditions.20Quantitativeevolutionarypopulationdynamicsshowsincreasingmutation loads.Mendel’sAccountant now enables even high school students to quickly evaluate andvisualizethesetrends.21Theconsequentprobabilitiesofmacroevolutionfromprebioticchemicalsouparesoastronomicallysmallastorequiregreatfaith.

SomeChristiansblindlyopposeevolution.OthersassumeGodusedevolution.ButmanyscientistswhoareChristiansmaintainthatboththestrengthsandweaknessesofmicro-andmacroevolutionshouldbestudied and taught objectively as a theory. Mathematician William Dembski and molecular biologistJonathan Wells explore biological systems from the viewpoint of Intelligent Design as a scientifictheory.22Scientistsneedtoobjectivelyevaluateallavailablefactstodiscoveriftheysupportintelligentdesign in biochemistry or show that life and species could have originated through neo-Darwinianmechanisms.

SHADOWSANDTHEBIRTHOFTHESCIENTIFICREVOLUTION

TheBibleisnotaEuropeanbook.Betweenthefifthandeleventhcenturies,EuropeanscholarstendedtoviewnaturethroughthelensoftheEuropeanphilosopherPlato.HetaughtthattherealmofIdeaswastherealworldandthematerialworldwasmerelyitsshadow.Forexample,onehousemaybecompletelydifferentfromanother.Why,then,arebothofthemcalleda

“house”?Platomightanswer:Becausetheyarebothshadowsofthesame“Idea”—oftheideal“house”thatexistsintherealnonmaterialorspiritualrealmofideas.Thematerialworldisbutitsshadow.Eachrealobjectcanhaveaninfinitenumberofshadows,dependingonthesource,distance,andangleofthelight.Astudyofshadowsthrowssomelightontheirsource.Medievalscholarsstudiedtheshadownatureprimarilytounderstandthespiritualreality.*ThussomeEuropeanchurchfatherssawthephysicaluniversemerelyasan inferior, transient,and

decayingimageofaneternal,spiritualrealm.Theyalsosawnatureasahieroglyph—aholybookwritteninascriptthatusespicturesofnaturalobjects,forexample,animals,birds,trees,andmountains.NaturewasdeemedtobeapictorialbookwrittenbyGodforourmoralandreligiousedification.EuropeanchurchfathersbelievedthatGodinfusedthecreatedworldwithsymbolstoleadustothesuperiorworldof spiritual realities. For example, when we see an ant, we ought to learn virtues such as industry,diligence,socialorganization,andforesight.Theysawnovalueinstudyingantsfortheirownsake.Sincewecanlearnmanydifferentlessonsfromants,theEuropeanchurchfathers,suchasOrigen(AD

185–254),adoptedtheGreekallegoricalmethodofinterpretingtexts.Greekphilosophershaddevelopedtheallegoricalmethod(hermeneutics)ofinterpretingtheirpoems,legends,andmythstosanitizemorallyproblematicstories.Forexample,regardingHomer,Heraclitussaid:“Ifeverythinghewroteisnotanallegory,[then]everythingisanimpiety.”23Philo,theAlexandrianJew,adoptedthisallegoricalapproachto find Greek philosophy in Hebrew Scriptures—the Old Testament—thus bringing it into Jewishculture.*Like Philo, Alexandrian Christians were immersed in Hellenistic thought. They adopted the Greek

allegoricalmethodofreadingboththebookofGod’swords(theBible)andthe(hieroglyphic)bookofGod’sworks(nature).Theythoughtthateachcreaturewasadivinelymadesymboltoteachusalesson.Thisattitudeshort-circuitedanunderstandingofnature.SciencewasbornaftertheChurchstartedreadingtheBibleliterally,notallegorically.Thatis,whenChristendomstartedtoreadatext(bookornature)objectivelyorinductivelytoseewhatittaught,insteadofseeingwhattheywantedorthoughttheyshouldfindinit.Peter Harrison, professor of Humanities and Social Sciences at Bond University, Australia, has

amassedevidence**thatsciencebecamea“revolution”becauseProtestantreformersinsistedthatGod’swordintheBibleandinnatureoughttobereadliterally,notallegorically.

Theemergenceof“proper”naturalhistory…wasduelargelytotheeffortsofProtestantreformers…Itiscommonlysupposedthatwhenintheearlymodernperiodindividualsbegantolookattheworldinadifferentway,theycouldnolongerbelievewhattheyreadintheBible.InthisbookIshallsuggestthatthereverseisthecase:thatwheninthesixteenthcenturypeoplebegantoreadtheBibleinadifferentway,theyfoundthemselvesforcedtojettisontraditionalconceptionsoftheworld.TheBible—itscontents,thecontroversiesit

generated,itsvaryingfortunesasanauthority,andmostimportantly,thenewwayinwhichitwasreadbyProtestants—playedacentralroleintheemergenceofnaturalscienceintheseventeenthcentury.24

Catholictheologianshadlaidthefoundationsofscienceinthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturies.25The

Reformation’ssuccessinestablishingtheBible’sintellectualauthorityunleashedinthepopularculturetheBible’steachingaboutGod,creation,man,sin,salvation,knowledge,education,andthepriesthoodofallbelievers.Thesebiblicalideas,asweshallsee,werecrucialtothebirthofwhatwenowcallthescientificrevolution.SeveralrecentstudieshaveexploredtheBible’sroleinlaunchingmodernscience.Fornonspecialists,

anexcellentstartingpointisRodneyStark’sbookFortheGloryofGod.Stark,whotaughtsociologyattheUniversityofWashington,becamedeeplyinterestedinhistory.Hedrewupa“RosterofScientificStars,”alistofthefifty-twomostimportantscientistswhopioneeredthescientificrevolution,beginningwith the publication of Copernicus’s Derevolutionibus in 1543. Stark reviewed all the informationavailableontheirpersonalbeliefsanddiscoveredthatallbuttwowereChristians.OnlyEdmundHalleyandParacelsuscouldbecalledskeptics.Sixtypercentofthemenwhocreatedsciencewere“devout”Christians—CatholicandProtestant—

whodidscience“forthegloryofGod.”Therestwere“conventional”Christians.Althoughtheirpietydidnot stand out, it was entirely satisfactory to their religious associates.26 Elaine Howard Ecklund’sstatistics27maybebetter.SpecialistsaresquabblingoverStark’slistandwillprobablycontestEcklund’sstatistics. What is incontestable about Stark’s thesis is that devout Christians who pioneered modernscience include people like Robert Boyle (1627– 91), who “expended a considerable portion of hislimitedfundstohavetheBibletranslatedintovariouslanguages.”28Boyle’sfriendSir IsaacNewton“wasasinterestedintheologyandBibleprophecyasinphysics—heleftmorethanamillionwordsonthesetopics.”29ThesemenpromotedtheBiblebecausetheysawitasthesourcebookofscience.

INFERENCEORPRESUPPOSITION?

Some scientists think that “God”—an intelligent creative agent behind the cosmos—is a necessaryinference from what we know about the universe. Historically, the biblical idea of God is not theinferencebutthepresupposition,orsource,ofscience.ThiswillbeeasiertounderstandbydiscussingwhyIslamcouldnotdevelopscience.IslamappropriatedGreekknowledgeviatheEasternChurch,whichhadpreservedandcopiedGreek

manuscripts. Islamic scholars translated those manuscripts into Arabic and improved on Greekknowledge.TheybroughtGreekmanuscriptsor translations intoEurope.Why, then,did Islamfail todevelop empirical science? Scholars are studying that question. One factor is the failure of MuslimscholarstocritiquethefoundationsofGreekthought,especiallyitscosmologyandrationalism.Duringthetwelfth and thirteenth centuries, Greco-Islamic pseudo–science almost trapped the West. For reasonsdiscussedintheAppendix,EuropereadandbelievedtheBibleasGod’srevealedtruth.ThatsaveditfromtheGreekworldviewthatwasincompatiblewiththeBible.Islamhadanalmighty,personalCreator;whatitlackedwastheBible.ThoughMuhammaddeclaredthe

Biblewasdivinelyinspired,Muslimsreaditonlytocritiqueit.ThecompilersoftheIslamicRasa’il,theEncyclopediaofBrethrenofPurity(aroundthetenthcentury),embracedtheGreekideathattheworldwasGaia,ahugeconsciouslivingorganismwithitsownintellectandsoul.Thisopenedthewayforpantheistic,cyclic,animistic,andmagicalideastopermeatetheIslamicworldview.ItinfectedIslamwiththecriticalproblemofGreekPlatonicperspective,thattheworldwasintelligiblethrougheternal“forms”foritsobjects.ForGreeks,toknowsomethingwastoperceivethoseforms.Oncethemindunderstoodtheseforms,itgraspedtheessence—theinherent,necessary,immanentlogic—ofthings.Thatknowledge

wasfinal.Itcouldnotbechallengedorchangedbyexperience.ThisAristotelianandIslamic“metaphysicalNecessitarianism”30madeempiricalverificationof“true

knowledge”unnecessary.ThisoutlookcausedMuslimphilosophers,suchasAvicenna(980–1037)andAverröesorIbnRushd(1128–98),tobecomedoctrinaireandintransigentfollowersofAristotle.Theybelieved that Aristotle’s physics was complete and infallible. Consequently, if an observationcontradictedAristotle,thentheproblemwaswiththeobservation—itmustbeincorrectoranillusion.Europeantheologiansstudiedallthegreatbooks.Theywereopentoreceivingknowledgefromthe

Greeks,includingviaMuslimscholars,translators,andinterpreters.However,theywerecommittedtotheBible.ThebiblicalworldviewbothimproveduponAristotleandopposedtheGreekcosmologicalworldview.The Bible cleansed Aristotle’s confidence in human reason from the contaminating influence of

animism.ItstrengtheneditbygroundingitintheimageofGod.Inhisseminalessay,“ChristianTheologyandModernScienceofNature,”M.B.Fosterexplained:

ThefirstgreatcontributionofChristiantheologytothedevelopmentofmodernnaturalsciencewasthereinforcementwhichitsuppliedto the scientific element in Aristotle himself; in particular it supplied a justification for the faith, which for Aristotle had been anungroundedassumption,thatthereisreasoninnaturediscoverablebytheexerciseofreasoninman.

The“rationalist”elementofAristotle’sphilosophyofnaturewasinconsistentwiththe“animism”whichhemaintainedsidebyside

withit.ThelatterelementwasutterlyincompatiblewithChristiandoctrine,andhadtobequiteeliminatedfromanytheoryofnaturewhichshouldbeconsistentwithaChristiantheology.31

Foster’sinsightisimportant:AlexandertheGreat’sconquestsspreadGreekideasasfarasIndia.But

in most cultures, animism, gnosticism, and mysticism overshadowed reason and evidence. The Biblereinforced the Greek confidence in the human mind, and even more importantly it removed theirrationalisminherentinanimism.Fosterexplainsthatforthebirthofscience,disagreementwithAristotlewasmoreimportantthanthe

agreementovertheusefulnessofreason.Hecallsthesedisagreementsthe“un-Greek”elementsoftheBible.Theywerecriticallyresponsibleforscience.

Whatisthe[historical]sourceoftheun-Greekelementswhichwereimportedintophilosophybythepost-Reformationphilosophers,andwhichconstitutethemodernityofmodernphilosophy?…Whatisthesourceofthoseun-Greekelementsinthemoderntheoryofnaturebywhichthepeculiarcharacterofthemodernscienceofnaturewastobedetermined?Theanswertothefirstquestionis:TheChristianrevelation[theBible],andtheanswertothesecond:TheChristiandoctrineofcreation.32

Whatwerethese“un-Greek”teachingsoftheBiblethatbecamefoundationalforscience?TheBible

beginswith:“InthebeginningGodcreatedtheheavensandtheearth.”Consequently,thecosmoswasnoteternal,norwasGodapartofthecosmos.Godwasfreeandheexistedbeforethecosmos.Hewasfreeto create whatever kind of cosmos he wanted to create. There were no eternal forms, no necessarypreexisting logic tobindGod.St.AlbertusMagnus(Albert theGreat,ordoctoruniversalis, ca. AD1206–80)introducedGreekandArabicscienceandphilosophytothemedievalworldandcritiquedit.MedievalCatholictheologiansrealizedthatAristotle’s“necessitarianism”contradictedthefreedomandomnipotenceofthebiblicalGod.Consequently, the bishop of Paris, Etienne Tempier, and the archbishop of Canterbury, Robert

Kilwardby,convenedthe1277ChurchCouncil.ItformallyrejectedtheGreco-Islamicideathat logicdictatedwhatGodcouldorcouldnotdo.TheylearnedfromtheBiblethatGodwasfree.Therefore,neitherthecosmosnorhumanlogiccouldbindhim.Thiswasonecornerstoneofthescientificprinciple:weneedtoempiricallyobservewhatGodhasdone,notpresumewhathecouldorcouldnotdobasedonourintuitionandlogic.IftheessenceoftheGreek“forms”wereknowable,logicwouldbeabletodeduce

thepropertiesofobjectswithoutempiricalobservation.JohnLockelaterrestatedthisbiblicalobjectiontoAristotlebydeclaringthatthe“RealEssence”of

naturalobjectswasunknowable.Noteverystatementofthe1277Councilwashelpful.Butthecouncilclarifiedissuesandtriggered

intensereflection.ThestrongestcriticismofGreco-Islamicnaturalphilosophy(orscience)camefromthenominalistFranciscantheologians.WilliamofOckham(1285–ca.1349),themostprominentnominalist,studiedandtaughtattheUniversityofOxford(1309–19).KnownasDoctorInvincibilis(“unconquerabledoctor”)andVenerabilisInceptor(“worthyinitiator”),heformulated“Ockham’srazor.*HeturnedtheIslamic/Aristotelianperspectivedown,groundingnaturallawandallethicalvaluesonthewillofGodrather than in metaphysical necessity or ideal forms. Ockham distinguished between God’s absolutepower(agistratabsoluta),bywhichhecoulddoanything,andhisordainedpower(agistratagistra),bywhichhecondescendstoworkwithinthenaturalandmorallawthatheestablished.Pope John XXII denounced some moral implications of Ockham’s teachings, placing him in house

detentionfrom1324to1328.However,manyinfluentialCatholictheologiansadvancedhisteachings.Among Ockham’s advocates were French Scholastic philosopher Jean Buridan (1300–58) of theUniversityofParis,andhisrenownedsuccessorsPierred’Ailly(1350–1420)andJeanGerson(1363–1429),bothchancellorsoftheUniversityofParis.D’AillyinturninfluencedMartinLutherandZwingli,bringingOckham’sperspectiveontheBibleintotheProtestantReformationandstimulatingempiricalscience.ProfessorWillisB.Gloversummarized:

Thebiblicaldoctrineofcreationisunique;noreligionotherthanthosedevelopedoutofthebiblicaltraditioncontainsanythinglikeit.InthebiblicaldoctrineGodisinanyontologicalsensecompletelydiscontinuouswiththeworld.TheworldontheotherhandiscompletelydependentonGod;itcontinuestoexistforhiscontinuingwillforittoexist.Itsunityisinhiswillorpurposeandnotanintrinsicproperty.Itsorderis,therefore,innowaybindingonGod.ThecompletefreedomofGodwithrespecttothewholecreationwasafundamentalinfluenceonlatemedievalthought.SinceGod’screativeactsaresubjecttonoeternaltruths,knowledgeoftheworldcouldnotbederiveddeductivelyfromphilosophybutmustcomethroughactualobservation.Itcouldnot,moreover,becertainknowledgebecausenoonecouldknowforsurewhatGodmightdonext.TherethusenteredintoWesternphilosophy,especiallyintoitsempiricaltradition,thatkindofrelativeskepticismwhichrecognizesthathumanknowledgeisnotwithoutakindofvalidity,butyetseesitaspartialandonlyapproximate.33

GOD’STWOBOOKS

FrancisBacon(1561–1626)andGalileoGalilei(1564–1642)areconsideredfoundersofthescientificmethod—therelianceonempiricalobservationoverhumanlogicorauthority.34BothheldtothetruthofbothofGod’stwobooks—thebookofnatureandthebookofGod’sWord,theBible.BothbookshadtobestudiedtobetterunderstandGod.In1603,FrancisBacon,LordChancellorofEnglandandafounderoftheRoyalSociety,wrote,quotingJesus:

ForourSavioursaith,“Youerr,notknowingtheScriptures,northepowerofGod,”[Matthew22:29KJV]layingbeforeustwobooksorvolumestostudy,ifwewillbesecuredfromerror:firsttheScriptures,revealingthewillofGod,andthenthecreatures[naturalscience]expressinghispower,whereofthelatterisakeyuntotheformer:notonlyopeningourunderstandingtoconceivethetruesenseoftheScripturesbythegeneralnotionsofreasonandrulesofspeech,butchieflyopeningourbelief,indrawingusintoaduemeditationoftheomnipotencyofGod,whichischieflysignedandengravenuponHisworks.35

Similarly,in1615Galileowrote:

FortheHolyBibleandthephenomenaofnatureproceedalikefromthedivinewordtheformerasthedictateoftheHolyGhostandthelatterastheobservantexecutrixofGod’scommand.36

In1776,theAmericancolonistsfoundedtheUnitedStatesofAmericaonthese“lawsofnatureandof

nature’sGod.”37ManysecularistsassociatetheBiblewithdogmatism,andsciencewithskepticismoropen-mindedness.Thus,itisworthrepeatingthattheWest’sintellectualopenness,whichsetitapartfromIslamandPlato,isaresultofbiblicaltheology.Itbeganwiththeepistemologyofmedievalnominalistswho realized that the biblical doctrine of God does more than make logic subservient to empiricalobservation.AsGloverputit:

The nominalists avoided the Averroistic heresy of thinking that God acted in accordance with some necessity of his own nature.BecausecreationwasacompletelyfreeactofGod,itsveryexistencewasnotnecessary.AndbecauseGodwascompletelyfreetoestablishanyorderofcreationhepleased,theorderthathedidinfactestablishcannotbeknownbydeductionfromanyprincipleswhatsoeverbutonlybyobservationorrevelation.Sofarasthephysicalworldwasconcerned,knowledgeofitsobjectsandoftherelationshipsthatexistedbetweenthemcouldbeknownonlyempirically…ThecontingencyoftheworldontheabsolutefreedomofGod had skeptical implications. God could do anything he pleased free of any rational order which might guide human mind in itspredictions;nothing,therefore,waspredictableinanyabsolutesense.IfoneinsistedwithAristotlethatonlywhatcouldbeknownwithcertaintywasvalidknowledge,thenallphysicalsciencewasavainundertaking.38

Why,then,shouldwestudyscience?PhilosopherslikePlatoandAristotlelookedatnaturetodiscover

universal and metaphysical truths, including the meaning and purpose of existence. They proceededabstractlyanddeductively.Buttheirconclusionsbecametheaprioriassumptionsoffuturegenerations,andtheseassumptionschainedtheEuropeanmind.Europecouldnotdevelopthescientificmethoduntilthesechainswerebrokenbythebiblicaldoctrineofdivinefreedom.AsProfessorGloverpointedout,theBibledidnotleadthemmerelytoquestiontheAristotelian/Islamicideaofabsoluteknowledge,but

italsoimpresseduponthemtherealityandworthof thematerialcreation. . .Theyacceptedthesignificanceofwhatconditionalknowledgeoftheworldwaspossibletothem.Thehistoricalfactisthatscientificinterestwasstimulatedinthem.39

Scienceisanobjective(“secular”)studyofthelawsofnaturebecauseofitsbiblicalinspirationas

God’screation,notinspiteofthat.SciencewasnotfoundedonapresuppositionofGod-lessmaterialism.Manyphilosophersandscientiststodayexpectthatnoanswerstothe“bigquestions”arepossible,and

thatwecanonlyhaveknowledgethatisdiscoveredbyscience.Thisattitudeleadstonihilism.Almostallfounders of science thought differently. They were willing to concentrate on studying small, specificquestionsbecausetheybelievedthattheCreatorhadalreadyansweredthebigquestionsintheBible.Theybelieveditwastheirdutyandprivilegetodiscoverwhathadnotbeenrevealed,butwhichwaswritten in nature. Francis Bacon explicitly cited the Bible to give meaning to in-depth inquiries intodetailsofcreation:“It is thegloryofGodtoconcealamatter; tosearchoutamatter is thegloryofkings.”40Gloversaidthisimpliedthat:

[t]hepurposewhichinformedcreationwasinscrutable(exceptinsofarasGodhadrevealedit); itwasGod’spurposeandwasnotinherentincreatedobjects.Finalcausationwasthusbanishedfromphysics;theaimofphysicswastodiscovertheefficientcausationthatoperatedintheorderthatGodhadestablishedforphysicalobjectsintheworld.Thiswasacrucialstepfromancientphysicstothephysicsofthemodernworld…theywerefreetomakethelimited,piecemealstudiesofthephysicalworldwhichhavebeenthehallmarkofmodernscienceandthewaytoitsgreataccomplishments.41

SINANDSCIENCE

The Bible’s teaching on creation was a key factor behind the birth of modern science. Biblicalperspectivesonsin,thecurse,andsalvationwereequallyimportant.Thepremodernworlddidnotdealwithdiseases,hunger,andstarvationorcopewithnaturalcalamities

and social injustices as we do. As Thomas Hobbes noted, life was tragically “solitary, poor, nasty,

brutish,andshort.”ForsagesliketheBuddha,thefactofsufferingwasthefirstinescapableor“Noble”truth.ThissufferingmadetheGnosticsthinkthatthematerialworldwasevil.Therefore,theybelievedthatGodcouldnothaveincarnatedinamaterialbody.Christianslivedinthesameworldaseveryoneelse—filledwithinexplicablesuffering.Jesus’closest

friend,John,refutedGnosticteachingasdemonicheresy42becauseheandotherswereeyewitnessesofthebodilylife,death,resurrection,andascensionofJesus.Forthosedisciples,thephysicalincarnation,resurrection,andascensionofJesusweretheultimateproofthatmatterwasgood.43ItexistedforGod’sglory.44Somephilosophies,suchasChristianScienceandtheNewAge’sACourseinMiracles,seephysical

problemsasillusory.TheBibledealswithrealproblemsinthephysicalworld.Weretheyintrinsictonature,aresultoftheCreator’spoorcraftsmanship?No,theBibleshowsoursufferingasanabnormalitythatGodhates.ItcameasacurseupontherebellionofAdamandEve(called“thefall”intosin).45TheBibleteaches“whenthecrownofcreationhadfallen,hisdominionshadfallenwithhim.”46AccordingtotheBible,sinseriouslyhindershumanattemptstoestablishdominionovertheearth.47The“goodnews,”accordingtotheBible,isthatJesusChristcametosaveusfromoursin.48Hetook

oursinanditscurseuponhimselfonthecross.49Jesusdiedforoursin.50Therefore,heisabletoforgiveuswhenwerepentforoursinandaskforforgiveness.51OldTestamentreadersknewthatGod’sgiftofsalvationincludeshealingfortheland,52whichtheNewTestamentaffirms:

ForthecreationwaitswitheagerlongingfortherevealingofthesonsofGod.Forthecreationwassubjectedtofutility,notwillingly,butbecauseofhimwhosubjectedit,inhopethatthecreationitselfwillbesetfreefromitsbondagetodecayandobtainthefreedomofthegloryofthechildrenofGod.Forweknowthatthewholecreationhasbeengroaningtogetherinthepainsofchildbirthuntilnow.Andnotonlythecreation,butweourselves,whohavethefirstfruitsoftheSpirit,groaninwardlyaswewaiteagerlyforadoptionassons,theredemptionofourbodies.53

FrancisBacon,the“fatherofthescientificmethod,”expressedtherelationshipofsintosciencein

thesefamouswords:

FormanbytheFallfellbothfromhisstateofinnocenceandhisdominionovercreation.Bothofthese,however,caneveninthislifebemadegood;theformerbyreligionandfaith,thelatterbyartsandsciences.54

GOD’SBOOKOFNATURE

Inmycountry, theHinduashramsandBuddhistmonasteriesdidnot teachscience.WhydidChristianuniversities in Europe—equally religious institutions—begin developing and teaching science? Biblescholars learned that reading the “book of nature” was more important than reading Greek and Latinbooks.Thelatterwerewrittenbymen,buttheformerwaswrittenbyGod.ParacelsuswrotethatbeforewestudyGalen,Avicenna,andAristotle,weshouldstudythebookofnature,whichisalibraryofbooksthat“Godhimselfwrote,made,andbound.”55Some theologians even advocated that the study of nature should precede the study of Scriptures

because, as English author and physician Sir Thomas Browne (1605–82) put it, nature was God’s“universallandpublickManuscript.”56Tertullian,thesecond-centurytheologian,taughtthatGodwrotethebookofnaturelongbeforetheScriptureshadbeencompiled.57AsEuropeantheologiansbeganstudyingtheBibleseriously,theycametorealizethatAdamandEve

knewnaturebeforethefall.Oneresultofthefallwaslosingthatknowledgeofnature.TorecovertheCreator’s imagerequiredbeingrenewedinourminds.Byknowingtheworld,peoplecouldbegin torestorethingstotheiroriginalunity,whichtheyhadpossessedwiththedivinemind.Bycontrollingand

subduingtheworld,humanbeings themselvescouldbegin toberestoredto theiroriginalpositionasGod’sviceroysonearth.During the Middle Ages, many Christians thought that redemption meant a flight from the world,

masteryoverone’slusts,andamysticalabsorptionintoGod.ButthisfreshstudyoftheBiblesuggestedthatredemptionmeantnotmysticalabsorptionintoGod,buttherestorationofGod’slikeness,includingtherecoveryofhiscreativeandorderedknowledgeofthenaturalworldandpoweroverit.ThisnewunderstandingofbiblicalsalvationisoftenassociatedwithFrancisBacon.However,itwas

agrowingunderstandingthatbegancenturiesbeforehim.AdelardofBath(d.post-1142)said,“Ifanyonebornoreducatedintheresidenceofthisworldneglectslearningtheplanunderlyingitsmarvelousbeauty,uponattainingtheageofdiscretion,heisunworthyand,wereitpossible,deservestobecastoutofit.”58The Protestant Reformation awakened popular interest in discovering and knowing truth, and that

boosted science. The Reformers took Christ’s exhortation seriously that knowledge of truth wouldliberate.59 Luther emphasized the biblical idea of the priesthood of all believers.60 Consequently, allhumanbeingsshoulddoeverythingforthegloryofGod.61SinceeverythingexistsforthegloryofGod,62andtheheavensdeclarehisglory,63itisrightforGod’speopletostudyallthings,includingtheheavens.ThusalmostallthepioneersofsciencewereChristiansandamajorityofthemweredevoutChristians.TheywerelaboringforthegloryofGod.*Somescientists,unawareofthetheologicalrootsofmodernscience,trytodefinescienceasanexclusivelymaterialisticunderstandingofnature,explicitlyexcludinganypossibility thatGodexists,orcancreateor interactwithnature (philosophicalmaterialism).However, theCreator’sexistencecannotbeexcludedaprioriwithoutuniversalknowledgeoftheentireuniverseandhowitoriginated.TheconsequencesofGod’screationandinterventionshouldbeobjectivelyobservableandthussubjecttorationalscience.*ThereissomeevidencethattheearlyChinesedidbelieveinonealmightyCreator.*BeforeDemocritusinGreece,IndianphilosopherPakudhaKatyayana,asixthcenturyBCcontemporaryoftheBuddha,taughtthattheworldwasmadeupofatoms.SomeIndianatomictheoriesofphysicaluniversearebrilliantandagreewithmodernphysics.However,theywerebasedonintuitionandlogicwithnoexperimentalscience.*Galileopioneeredexperimentalscience.HedisprovedAristotlebyreportedlydroppingacannonballandmusketballfromatowerinPisaandshowingbothlandedtogether—orbydroppingtheballsfromaship’scrow’snest.*Thisistheideathatthelawsofnatureareinherentorimmanentinthings,notimposedbytheCreator.*LutherscornedCopernicus’smodel,butLutheranfriendspublishedCopernicus’sbook.Copernicus’sheliocentricsystemlackedatheoreticalbaseandGalileo’sexperimentonVenus.*Platonicmetaphysicswasnottheonlyhindrancetoscience.Someheldthepaganideathatalesser,malevolentdeitycreatedtheworldandthatmatterwasinherentlyevil.OthersbelievedtheGnostics,thatmatterwasunreal.*Seechapter6,“Rationality.”**HarrisonamassesevidencethattheBibleisthesourcebookofsciencebutbelievesthattheBiblecreatedscienceindirectly.Whatwasthedirectcause?Hisansweris:theliteralwayinwhichtheProtestantreformersreadtheBible.*Refinedas“Einstein’srazor”to~Makethingsassimpleaspossible,butnotsimpler.

PartVI

WHATMADETHEWESTTHEBEST?

Fortheindividualperson[intheWest]thismythoforiginalsinandredemptionisturnedintotheritualofconfessingtheguilt.Theconfessionofguiltnotonlyrelievestheconfessoroftheburdenofguilt;italsopurifieshim.Iftheconfessingindividualprovestobeinnocent,but

neverthelesstakesontheburdenofcollectiveguilt,hesanctifieshisownmundaneindividuality,heperformsChristomimesisand—asapoliticalleader—partakesofthecharismaofthehero.ThustheEuropeanritualofconfessingguiltforsinsofthepastreliesonamythologythatremainsevenifthepoliticalrepresentativesperformingtheritualareutterlysecularized

individualswhoignoretheculturaloriginoftheiractions.—BERNHARDGIESEN

ChapterFourteen

MORALITY

WHYARESOMELESSCORRUPT?

InfilmssuchasWallStreet:MoneyNeverSleepsandSocialNetwork,HollywoodisshowingsecularcapitalismchangingAmerica’smottoto“InGreedWeTrust.”Inthesummerof2010,theUSCongresspassedatwenty-three-hundred-pageacttoregulatethefinancialsector.Thisactisanadmissionofthemassivecorruptioninthatsectoroftheeconomy.WallStreet’scorruption,however,hasyettobecomeapart of Main Street. Growing immorality has, once again, begun to hurt the church’s credibility.Nevertheless, the traditional morality of the West, easily evident in small towns and villages, isincomprehensibletomostnon-Westernvisitors.Forexample,in1982,IwastravelingtoEnglandforaconferenceoneconomicdevelopment.Leaving

New Delhi after midnight, I was sleepy, but the Sikh gentleman next to me talked nonstop. He wasreturning to England after visiting his parents in a Punjab village in northwest India. He could notcomprehendwhyIwaslivinginpoverty,servingthepoor.HetookitashismissiontopersuademetosettleinEngland.DoingbusinessinEngland,heargued,waseasyandprofitable.Afterbeingharassedformorethananhour,Ibegantolosemypatience.Butsomethingintriguedme.Hecouldnotspeakasinglesentence without making a mistake. How could someone who spoke such poor English succeed as abusinessmaninEngland?SoIasked,“Tellme,sir,whyisbusinesssoeasyinEngland?”“Because everyone trusts you there,” he answered, without pausing for a moment. Having not yet

venturedintoabusiness,Ididnotgrasphowimportanttrustwastosuccessinbusiness.Ipushedbackmyseatandwenttosleep.Aftertheconference,Mr.JanvanBarneveldhostedmeinhishomeatDoornHolland.One afternoon Jan said to me, “Come let us get some milk.” We walked between gorgeous moss-

coveredtreestoadairyfarm.Ihadneverseenanythinglikethis:aneatandtidydairyfarmwithaboutonehundredcowsbutnohumanbeings.Thecowsweremilkedautomatically,andthemilkwaspumpedintoalargeboiler-liketank.We entered the milk room, where Jan opened the tap and filled his jug. Then he reached out to a

windowsillandpulleddownabowlfullofcash.Hetookouthiswallet,drewatwenty-guildernote,andputitintothebowl.Hehelpedhimselftothechangefromthebowl,putitintohiswallet,pickedupthejug,andstartedtowalkout.Icouldn’tbelievemyeyes.“Man,”Isaid,“ifyouwereanIndian,youwouldtakethemilkandthemoney!”Janlaughed.Butinthatinstant,IunderstoodwhatthatSikhbusinessmanhadbeentryingtotellme.IfthiswereIndiaandIwalkedoutwiththemoneyandthemilk,thedairyownerwouldneedtohirea

cashier.Whowouldpayforthecashier?I,theconsumer,would;andthepriceofmilkwouldgoup.Butiftheconsumerwerecorrupt,whyshouldthedairyownerbehonest?Hewouldaddwatertothemilktomakemoremoney.Iwouldthenbepayingmoreforadulteratedmilk.Iwouldcomplain,“Themilkisadulterated;thegovernmentmustappointinspectors.”Who would pay for the inspectors? I, the taxpayer, would. But if the consumer, producer, and the

supplierwerecorrupt,whyshouldtheinspectorsbehonest?Theywouldextractbribesfromthesupplier.Ifhedidnotbribethem,theinspectorswoulddelaythesupplyandensurethatthemilkcurdledbeforeitgottome.*Whowouldpayforthebribe?Again,I,theconsumer,wouldpaytheadditionalcost.BythetimeIpaid

forthemilk,thecashier,thewater,theinspector,andthebribe,Iwouldhavelittlemoneylefttobuychocolateforthemilk—somychildrenwouldnotdrinkthemilkandwouldbeweakerthantheDutchchildren.Havingspentextramoneyonthemilk,Iwouldnotbeabletotakemychildrenoutforicecream.The cashier, water, bribe, and inspector add no value to the milk. The ice-cream industry does. Mycorruptionkeepsmefrompatronizingavalue-addingbusiness.Thatreducesoureconomy’scapacitytocreatejobs.SomeyearsagoIsharedthisstoryinaconferenceinIndonesia.AnEgyptianparticipantlaughedthe

most.Asalleyesturnedtohim,heexplained,“WeEgyptiansareclevererthantheseIndians.Ifnoonewaswatching,wewouldtakethemilk, themoney,andthecows.”ThegentlemanwastoocharitabletowardusIndians.

CYNICISMININDIA

ManyyearsaftermytriptoHolland,Iheard“uncle”Emmanuel*complainthattheyweregettinghighlyadulteratedmilkinMussoorie.ItoldhimthatRuthhadfinallyfoundanhonestmilkmanandthatweweregettingpuremilk.AfterIhadspenthalfanhourtryingtopersuadetheunclethattheyshouldbuymilkfromour milkman, he got tired and dismissed me as utterly naïve. “It’s impossible to get pure milk inMussoorie,”hesaid.“Yourmilkmanmustbeveryclever.Hemustbeaddingsomethingotherthanwatertothemilk,somethingthatyouhaven’tfiguredoutasyet.”Takingthehint,Ichangedtheconversationtothequestionofcorruption.Uncle,aretiredrailwayengine

driver,toldmethathehadjustheardfromafriendofhis(alsoaretireddriver)thathissonhadspentninemonthsandthirtythousandIndianrupeesinbribesandstillhadnotgottenajobwiththerailways.Thiswasinspiteofthepolicythatafteranemployeeretires,oneofhischildrenwillbegivenpreferenceinrecruitment.Thenuncledescribedatlengthhowhebecameemployedinthe1940s.Here’stheabridgedversion.TheBritishwererulingIndia.Therecruitingofficerexaminedhiscertificates,orderedanimmediate

in-housephysicalcheckup,offeredhimacupoftea,lookedatthedoctor’sreport,andorderedthatanappointmentletterbegiventohimthenextday.Thefollowingmorningtheclerkissuedtheappointmentletterwithanothercupoftea!Nobribes,nostringspulled,andnodelays.Recruitmentwasaclean,prompt,andprofessionalaffair,basedsolelyonmerit.Theconsequencewas

competent employees who were loyal to the enterprise, proud of their work, and respectful of law,authority, and the government. That era, the uncle lamented, had gone for good. Fifty years ofindependenceofferednohopeforthefuture.

THEEFFECTOFCORRUPTION

Transparency International (TI), a German nongovernmental organization, has long recognized thecorrelationbetweencorruptionandpoverty.EachyearTIpublishesaGlobalCorruptionPerceptionsIndex(CPI)thatrankscountriesfromtheleastcorrupttothemostcorrupt.Theindexfor2009ranks180countries,with10pointsallottedfora totallycleancountry.Nocountry,ofcourse,gets10points;amajorityofthecountriesreceivefewerthan5points—meaningthattheyaremorecorruptthanclean.Hereareextractsfromthe2009rankings:Rank Country CPI2009Score(outof10points)

1 NewZealand 9.42 Denmark 9.33 Singapore 9.217 UnitedKingdom7.719 UnitedStates 7.579 China 3.684 India 3.4146 Russia 2.2176 Iraq 1.5179 Afghanistan 1.3180 Somalia 1.1Doespovertycausecorruption?Ordoescorruptioncausepoverty?Whetherthechickencomesfirstor

theeggisaninterestingbuttheoreticalquestion.PeterEigen,TIchairmanin2002,emphasizedtherolecorruptionplaysinkeepingcountriespoor:

Politicalelitesandtheircroniescontinuetotakekickbacksateveryopportunity.Handinglovewithcorruptbusinesspeople,theyaretrappingwholenationsinpovertyandhamperingsustainabledevelopment.Corruptionisperceivedtobedangerouslyhighinpoorpartsoftheworld,butalsoinmanycountrieswhosefirmsinvestindevelopingnations…Politiciansincreasingly[emphasisadded]paylipservicetothefightagainstcorruptionbuttheyfailtoactontheclearmessageofTI’sCPI:thattheymustclampdownoncorruptiontobreaktheviciouscycleofpovertyandgraft . . .Corruptpoliticalelitesinthedevelopingworld,workinghand-in-handwithgreedybusinesspeopleandunscrupulousinvestors,areputtingprivategainbeforethewelfareofcitizensandtheeconomicdevelopmentoftheircountries.1

Eigenconsiderscorruptiontobeamajorroadblocktodevelopment.Heblamesitonthepoliticaland

economicelite—notonthepoor.TIhasreleasedsuchCPIsformanyyearsnow.Theyarefindingthathypocrisy (lip service) and corruption are increasing in many parts of the world. Eigen appeals topoliticalleadersinthedevelopingworldtoexertpoliticalforcetoeradicatecorruption,buthecomplainsthatsuchappealsaren’tworking.AnimportantfindingoftheCPIisthattheleastcorruptcountriesaretheProtestantcountries—thatis,

secularnationswhosecultureswereshapeddecisivelybytheBible.TheonlyexceptionisSingapore,atinycity-state.*Letus ignore theresultsofBritishadministrationandassumethateven thoughdictatorshipusually

increases corruption, at least in Singapore it has uprooted some of the corruption. The Singaporeexperimentraisesthesequestions:

•WillSingaporeremaincorruption-freeafterthedictatorsaregone?•Couldthemethodsofacity-statebeusedinlargecountrieswhereanindividualcannotoverseetheoveralladministration?

•DoesSingapore’sdictatorshipdemonstratethatwhenyourelyexclusivelyonforcetoeradicatecorruption,youfreeapeoplefromfreedomaswellasfromcorruption?

HowdidordinarypeopleofHollandbecomesodifferentfromourpeopleinIndiaandEgypt?Theanswer is simple. The Bible taught the people of Holland that even though no human being may bewatchingusinthatdairyfarm,God,ourultimatejudge,iswatchingtoseeifweobeyhiscommandstoneither covet nor steal. According to the Bible, “Nothing in all creation is hidden from God’s sight.Everythingisuncoveredandlaidbarebeforetheeyesofhimtowhomwemustgiveaccount.”2How was this Bible teaching instilled in Holland’s culture? Following the sixteenth-century

Reformation, the Heidelberg Catechism played perhaps the most important role in shaping Holland’smoral culture. This 1563 German catechism was translated into Dutch in 1566. Four Dutch synodsapproveditforuseinDutchchurches.FinallytheSynodofDort(1618–19)adopteditofficiallyasthesecondoftheThreeFormsofUnity.ThesynodmadeitobligatorythatministersteachthecatechismeverySunday.ThecatechismplayedthesameroleinHollandasMoses’“arkofthecovenant”playedinIsrael.Thecatechismexpoundstheeighthcommandment,“Youshallnotsteal,”asfollows:

Question110:WhatdoesGodforbidintheeighthcommandment?Answer:Godforbidsnotonlythosetheftsandrobberiesthatarepunishablebythecourts;butheincludes under the name of “stealing” all deceitful tricks and devices, whereby we design toappropriatetoourselvesanythingbelongingtoourneighbor—whetheritbebyforceorundertheappearanceofright,asbyunjustweights,inaccuratemeasurements,falsereckoningoftimespentin service, fraudulent merchandise, false coins, exorbitant interest, or by any other meansforbiddenbyGod.Godisforbiddingcovetousnessaswellasallabuseaswasteofaperson’sgifts.

Question111:ButwhatdoesGodrequireinthiscommandment?Answer:ThatIseektheadvantageofmyneighborratherthanmyowneveryinstanceIcananddealwith my neighbor as I desire to be dealt with by others. Further, that I faithfully labor andgenerouslygive,sothatImaybeabletocareforthehurtingandrelievetheneedy.

Thecommandagainststealingsoundssimple,sowhywasthecatechismreadingalltheseextrathingsintoit?ThecatechismdidnotinjectanythingintotheTenCommandmentsthattheBibleitselfdidnotteach.TheBiblesaidthatGod’speoplewhodidnotgiveatenthoftheirincometoGodwererobbingGod.3AtinynationsuchasHollandhadsurplusmoneytogivetoIndia,Egypt,andIndonesiabecausetheBibletaughtitspeopletoworkhardandgivetithesandofferingstoGod.ThepeopleobeyedtheBible,whichcommanded,“Letthethiefnolongersteal,butratherlethimlabor,doinghonestworkwithhisownhands,sothathemayhavesomethingtosharewithanyoneinneed.”4TheCPIconfirmswhatIsawinHolland—thattheBibleistheonlyforceknowntohistorythathas

freedentirenationsfromcorruptionwhilesimultaneouslygivingthempoliticalfreedom.Themostsecularnations—that is, the ex-communist, atheistic nations, which teach that when no man or machine iswatchingyou,thennooneiswatchingyou—areamongthemostcorruptnations,nottoodifferentfromHindu,Buddhist,andMuslimnations.WhattheIndianbusinessmantoldmeontheplanetoLondonaboutEngland’scultureoftrustintrigued

mebecauseasstudentsinIndiawealwaysheardthatRobertClive,whowonBengalfortheBritish,tooka huge bribe to install his puppet as the Nawab (ruler) of Bengal. Following Clive’s example, theemployeesandsoldiersoftheBritishEastIndiaCompanybeganareignofamazinglyovertcorruption.NoBritishhistoriandisputesthatverdict.LordMacaulay,whospentmanyyearsinIndia,cataloguedandexplainedthiscorruption.Hisconclusionwasthatduringitsearlyphase,theBritishruleinIndiawasa“governmentofanevilgenii,ratherthanthegovernmentofhumantyrants.”5HowwasEnglandtransformed?WhatchangedthemoralcharacterofBritishadministrationinIndia?

WasittheTenCommandments?Oristheresomepowergreaterthanthelaw?IntheplaneIwastoosleepytodiscussthiswiththeSikhgentleman,butduringtheconferenceIwas

delighted when an American author, Miriam Adeney, showed me Ian Bradley’s book The Call toSeriousness:TheEvangelicalImpactontheVictorians.6Igrabbedit.Bradleystartedmeonacourseofstudythatresultedintwoofmybooks,7describinghowtheBibletransformedBritishadministrationinIndiafromtheruleofanevilgenietoa“civilservice.”IlearnedthatMacaulayplayedacrucialrolein

thattransformation.

THEGOSPEL’SPOWERTOSAVEUSFROMOURSIN

TheempiricaldatasaysthatcountriesmostinfluencedbytheBiblearetheleastcorrupt.Whywouldthatbe the case? The apostle Paul experienced the gospel’s power to change his life and those of hisfollowers.Hesaidthatthegospel—theincidentofJesus’shamefuldeathonthecross—thatsoundslikefoolishnesstothephilosophicalGreeksandweaknesstotheJewswasinfactthewisdomandthepowerofGodforoursalvation.8Paulsuccinctlysummedupthegospel:“Christdiedforoursinsinaccordancewith the Scriptures, that he was buried, that he was raised on the third day in accordance with theScriptures.”9Whatissopowerfulaboutthistheologicaljargon?Evenifitactuallyhappenedinhistory,howcould

repeatingsuchastorydeliverentirenationsfromcorruption?Trueorfalse,thegospelisanythingbutmumbojumbo.Itisastraightforwardeyewitnessaccount.TosaythatJesusdiedforoursinsistosaythattheeyewitnesseswhosawJesushangingonthecrossunderstoodthatJesuswascarryingthesinoftheworldonit.Thatis, theysawwiththeirnakedeyesthat itwasnotthejusticeoftheworldthatwashanginguponthecrossofCalvary,butinjustice,cruelty,andbrutality.BothjudgeswhotriedJesus—PilateandHerod—foundhimnotguilty.Why,then,washehangingon

thecross?Itwastheenvy,jealousy,hatred,andfearofthethenJewishleadershipthatcrucifiedhim.Itwas the greed of his disciple Judas who betrayed him for thirty pieces of silver. It was the moralcowardiceofJesus’followersandtheJewishmasses.Thesinoftheworld,inotherwords,wasvisibletothenakedeyeofeverywitness—whetherafollowerofChrist,hisopponent,oranindifferentpasserby.Thecrosswasademonstrationthatevenifsinyieldssomegoodresults—silver,inthecaseofJudas—theultimateconsequenceofsinisterrible.Itisdeath.Theotherpartofthegospelisanequallystraightforwardeyewitnessstatement.ThefollowersofJesus

Christ,whosawhimdeadandburied,latersawthathistombwasempty.Jesusdidnotreincarnateintoanotherbody.Hewasresurrectedinthesame,althoughtransformed,body.Thedisciplessawhim,talkedwithhim,touchedhim,andatewithhim—notinastateoftranceormeditation,butinfullpossessionoftheirskepticalsenses.Atleastoneofthedisciples,Thomas,didnotbelievethemultiplereportsoftheresurrection.Butthen,

themanwhohaddiedstoodinfrontofThomas,invitinghimtoverifythathewasthesamepersonwhosehandswerepiercedwiththenailsthathunghimuponthecross.Thomaschosetoacceptthefactandmodify his worldview. The historical fact of Christ’s crucifixion and resurrection had profoundphilosophicalimplications.ThosewhosawtheresurrectedJesushadempiricalgroundsforbelievingthatdeathwasnottheendof

humanexistence.ResurrectionmeantthatwecontinuetoexistbeyondourdeathandremainaccountabletoGod.Justastheconsequenceofsinwasdeath,theconsequenceoffaithandobediencewasresurrectionlife.ThedeathandresurrectionofJesusbecamegoodnews—thegospel—becausetheyweremorethanhistorical events. They were a demonstration of God’s redemptive intervention in our history. Theyimplied,amongotherthings,thatmoralitywasmorethanasocialconstructorthelawoftheland.Atyrantmaybeabovethelaw;apolitician,civilservant,orwell-connectedbusinessmanmaybelong

toabrutalsystemthatoperatesabovethelaw.Hemayignorethelawandrobpeopleinbroaddaylightbyforcingthemtopaybribes.Itmaybeimpossibletobringcorruptofficialstojusticeinthisworld.Yet,ifmorallawisGod’slaw,noonewillbeabletoescapeit.EveryonewillstandbeforethejudgmentseatofGodandgiveanaccountofhislife.10Hewillhavetotaketheconsequenceofhissin—unless,ofcourse,herepentsforhissinandacceptstheforgivenessandeternal lifethatJesusoffers.JesuscanforgivebecausehebecamethesacrificialLambofGodandtookthesinoftheworlduponhimself.

This was the good news, the gospel. It cleaned up America when Jonathan Edwards (1703–58),America’sfirstphilosopher,beganpreachingitinsermonslike“SinnersintheHandsofanAngryGod.”TherisenJesusappearedtoJohnwhenhewasimprisonedontheislandofPatmosandsaid,“Behold,I

standatthedoorandknock.Ifanyonehearsmyvoiceandopensthedoor,Iwillcomeintohimandeatwithhim,andhewithme.”11Whenthelightcomesinandbeginstodwellinus,ourinnerdarknesswillbedrivenout.Inotherwords,Jesusdoeswhatnodictatorcando.Adictatorcouldpunishmefortakingabribe, but Jesus deals with the greed in my heart that prompts me to covet other people’s money. Adictatorcouldpunishmeforabusingmywife.Jesus,ifhedwellsinmyheart,convictsandasksmetorepent.Healsogivesmehispowertolove.WhenIinviteJesustocomeintomyheartbyhisSpirit,thenIambornagainintoanewspirituallife.IslamandChristianityshareincommontheideaofmoralabsolutes.ThedifferenceisthatAllahistoo

majestictocomeintoadirtymangerorintoafilthyheart.IfGoddoesnotcomeintothisworldtosavesinners,thenothersinners—dictatorsandtyrants—havetodothedirtyworkofrestrainingoursinfulness.Butbycleaningusfromtheinside,Jesusmakespossibleinnerself-government,socio-politicalfreedom,andcleanpubliclife.Isthegospelmerelyreligiousrhetoric?ThetestimonyofhistoryisthatChristendomwasascorruptas

anyotherpartoftheworlduntilitrecoveredthisbiblicalgospelduringtheReformation.Thatcreatedthemoral climate and trustworthiness in England, witnessed firsthand by my fellow passenger on theairplane.

ENGLANDBEFOREANDAFTERJOHNWESLEY

IanBradley’sbookbeganhelpingmeunderstandEnglandandthepowerofthegospelthattransformeditscoloniesinAfricaandAsia.Afewyearslater,alecturebyDonaldDrewgivenatL’AbriFellowshipinEnglandhelpedmeconnectthedotsthatBradleyhadalreadydrawn.ThelecturewasonthefounderofMethodism,JohnWesley(1703–91),andhisimpactonEngland.FollowingarethemainpointsofDrew’slecture.12In1738,twocenturiesaftertheReformation,BishopBerkeleydeclaredthatreligionandmoralityin

Britainhadcollapsed“toadegreethatwasneverbeforeknowninanyChristiancountry.”Theimportantreasons for the degeneration of Protestant England were the restoration of the monarchy and thesupremacyoftheAnglicanChurchattheendoftheseventeenthcentury.OncetheAnglicanChurchcameback to power, it began to oppress the Puritans and expelled more than four hundred conscientiousAnglican clergymen. They had become priests to serve God, and therefore they refused the oath ofallegiancetoWilliamofOrange.Thecombinedimpactofthesedevelopmentswastoleavethechurchbereftofprophets.Matterswere

madeworsebythedecreeprohibitingAnglicanbishopsandclergyfrommeetingtogethertodeliberateonecclesiastical matters. With little correction, encouragement, or accountability, the moral life of thepriestsdegenerated,loweringthestandardsforthewholenation.TheriseoftheEnlightenment, towardtheendoftheseventeenthcenturyandthroughtheeighteenth

century,madethesituationhopeless.Deism,or“naturalreligion,”taughtthatGodisnotinvolvedintheaffairsoftheworld.Hehasgivennolaw.Heisneitherwatchingoveryou,norwillhejudge,punish,orrewardyou.Godisjustanuninvolvedcreator.ThatbelieftookawaythefearofGod.TheBiblewasstillavailable,butitwasnottheWordofGod.Itwasjustanotherbookaboutwisdomandvirtue.Anationalchurchpubliclymuzzled,withitspropheticandpriestlywingsclipped,couldnotrefute

deistsandskeptics.Deismprogressedtorationalism,skepticism,atheism,andfinallycynicism.Oncebiblicaltruthwasundermined,biblicalmoralitybegantoloseground.ThecorruptionoftheclergyoftheChurchofEnglandspreadfromtoptobottom.Asuccessionofarchbishopsandbishopslivedluxuriously,

neglectingtheirduties,unashamedlysolicitingbishopricsanddeaneriesforthemselvesandtheirfamilies.Parishclergyfollowedsuit.BeginningwithQueenAnne,theroyaltybegantofilltheircourtswithcourtierswhoflauntedlevityand

practicedvice.SeriousChristiansbeganstayingawayfromOxfordandCambridge,wheredonsbusiedthemselvesintheirbookswhileundergraduatesimmersedthemselvesinwineandwomen,sportandsong.AcorruptchurchwithclosedScripturesdarkenedmostaspectsofEnglishlife.BythetreatyofUtrecht

in1713,EnglandhadwrungfromFranceandSpainthemonopolyoftheslavetrade.Theslavetradebredandfedfinancialgreed.Itbrutalizedmasters’andslaves’lives,makinglaborundignified.Thatbecameacurseontheeconomicandpoliticallifeoftheeighteenthcentury.TheIndustrialRevolutionwasgraduallyspreading,andtheattitudesoftheslavetradersinfluenced

manyownersofmines,factories,andmillsinthetreatmentoftheirworkers.Thebarbaritiespracticedinindustrywerebadenough,butthosecarriedoutonslaveshipsandtheninplantationschillone’sblood.ItisestimatedthatduringthatcenturythenumberofAfricanscarriedintoslavery,largelyinBritishshipsandlargelyfromWestAfricatoAmerica,ranintothemillions.TherewassomeslaveryinEnglandtoo.Andbecauseoftheenormoussumsofmoneyinvolvedintheslavetrade,therewererepeatedfinancialscandals,leadingtolossandruin,thechiefofwhichwastheSouthSeaBubbleof1720thatvirtuallywreckedthenationaleconomy.Dishonestyfortifiedmoredishonesty.Corruptionspreadslikecancer.Nepotism,placeseeking,andbriberybecametheorderofthedayin

politics,especiallyatelectiontimes.Forthefirsthalfofthecentury,theprimeminister,RobertWalpole,epitomizedcorruption.Hispoliticswerenotaboutpublicservicebutaboutmanagingmen,means,money,and the manipulation of laws, their administration, and the penal system in the interest of the rulingclasses.Britainatthistime,morethanatanyother,wasanationdividedbetweentherichandthepoor.The

lawsweredevisedlargelytokeepthepoorintheirplaceandundercontrol.Thustostealasheep,tosnarearabbit,tobreakayoungtree,topickapocketformorethanoneshilling,andtograbgoodsfromsomeone’shandandrunawaywiththemwerehangingoffenses.ExecutionsatTyburninLondonwereknown as “hanging shows.” They occurred regularly and drew huge crowds. As for the prisoners’existenceinjails;thetransportationtoAustraliaofmen,women,andchildren;thefloggingofwomen;thepillory;andbrandingonthehand—suchhorrorscontinuedunabated.The strangulation of biblical Christianity had further inhumane consequences in the treatment and

mortalityofchildren.Theirdeathratestellaterribletale,thoughauthenticstatisticsareonlyavailableforLondon.Theseshowthatbetween1730and1750,threeoutofeveryfourchildrenborntoallclassesdiedbeforetheirfifthbirthday.JamesHanway,theChristianfriendof“parishandpauperchildren,”producedscoresofstatisticsandpamphlets,preservedintheBritishMuseumlibrary,revealinghisinvestigationsintothetreatmentanddeathrateoftheparishinfants.Deathoccurredtimeaftertimebecauseofmurderandthepracticeofexposingnewlybornbabiestoperishinthestreets,aswellastheplacingofunhappyfoundlingswithheartlessnurses,wholetthemstarveorturnedthemintothestreetstobegorsteal.TheeighteenthcenturyinEnglandisknownasthe“GinAge.”Horriblechildabusewasoftentheresult

ofdrinkingstrong,fiery,poisonousgin,whichoutrivaledbeerasthenationalbeverage.IrishhistorianWilliam Lecky defined the national gin-drinker’s drunkenness as the “master-curse of English lifebetween1720–1750.”Theinevitableevilsofalcoholismfollowed—poverty,violence,prostitution,andmurder.Theliquortrade,withitsdailydisruptionofthenation’slife,wasthecardinalcauseofsocialdisintegrationanddegenerationduringthosethirtyyears.Themoraldarknessoftheageexpresseditselfinapervertedconceptionofsport,which,likealcohol,

broughtattendantevilsinitstrain,suchasfurthercoarseningofthepersonality,cruelty,andgambling.Thebaitingofbulls,bears,badgers,anddogs—withfireworksattachedtothem—wastypicalofthethirdandfourthdecadesofthiscentury.Mostofthosetorturestookplaceinpublichousegrounds,inavillage

green,invillagechurchgrounds,orincathedralcloses.Theanimalswereoftenbaitedtodeathtoprovidegreaterexcitement.Another“sport”wascockfightingwithmetalspurs.Manyeighteenth-centuryclergymenbredfighting

cocksandsometimeshadchurchbellsrungtohonoralocalwinner.Thesettingoftraineddogsonducksinlakeswasanotherfavoriterecreation,aswasfoxhunting.Cudgelplayandpugilism—boxingwithoutgloves—formenandwomen,whichsometimeswentonforhours,wasanothersport,whileprizefightsbetweenfamousmalebruiserswhobattledbare-fistedattractedmobsoftwelvethousandormore.Gamblingwasanationalobsessionforallclasses,bringingappallingruintothousands.InLondonand

otherbigcities,promiscuitybecameasport,fromcourtmasqueradestofornicationindaylightonthevillagegreen,orsellingone’swifebyauctionatacattlemarket.Therewasanabundanceofopenlypornographicliterature.DonaldDrewquotesIrishhistorianLecky:“TheprofligacyofthetheatreduringthegenerationthatfollowedtheRestoration,canhardlybeexaggerated.”Likewise,ajudgeremarkedthat“nosoonerisaplayhouseopenedinanypartofthekingdom,thanitatoncebecomessurroundedbyahaloofbrothels.”TheBiblebecameaclosedbook,andtheresultwasignorance,lawlessness,andsavagery.Untilthe

adventoftheSundayschoolmovementtowardtheendofthecentury,littleornoprovisionwasmadeforthefreeeducationofthepoor,exceptthechurchsystemofcharityschools.Theywereinvariablyafarce,mostteachersbeinghalf-literate.MillionsofEnglishpeopleatthistimehadneversetfootinanykindofschool, but young people of school-leaving age were usually apprenticed, often sold to masters, andfrequentlyviciouslytreated.Asforlawlessness,thieves,robbers,andhighwaymen,HoraceWalpoleobservedin1751,“Oneis

forcedtotravel,evenatnoon,asifoneweregoingtobattle.”Savageryshoweditselfintheplunderingofshipwreckedvessels,luredbyfalsesignalsontorocks,andintheindifferenceshowntothedrowningsailors.ThiswasaregularactivityalongtheentirecoastlineoftheBritishIsles.IntothisspiritualandmoralquagmiresteppedJohnWesley.HewasbornthesameyearasJonathan

Edwards,onJune28,1703, inaLincolnshirecountryrectory.Oneofnineteenchildren,henarrowlyescapeddeathasalittleboywhenonenighttherectorycaughtfireandwasburnedtotheground.HewenttoCharterhouseSchoolandontoOxford,wherehisintellectualgiftsledtohisbeingelectedafellowandtutorofLincolnCollege.Devoutlyreligious,heandothersministeredasbesttheycouldtothepooranddowntrodden,buttheirpeersdespisedthemforit.Afterafewyears,JohnwasordainedintheChurchofEngland,alongwithhisbrotherCharles,and

thensailedtotheUnitedStates.OnreturningtoEnglandmuchheartsearchingensued.ItwasnotuntilhetalkedwithsomeMoraviansinLondonthatherealizedhewasaChristianinnameonly.ItwasinaMoravianserviceonMay24,1738,thatWesleyrepentedofhissinandfoundthesalvationthatJesusoffers.Wesleywrote,“[I]feltmyheartstrangelywarmed.IfeltIdidtrustChrist,Christdiedformysalvationandanassurancewasgivenmethathehadtakenawaymysins,evenmine…ItestifiedopenlytoalltherewhatInow…feltinmyheart.”13JohnWesleyexperiencedwhatJesuscalledbeing“bornagain.”Itbegantowarmhisheart,unifyhis

personality,multiplyhissympathies,sharpenhiscriticalfaculties,andclarifyhislife’spurpose.Heatoncebegantodeclare the“gladtidingsofsalvation” inprisons,workhouses,andwhereverchurcheswouldopentheirpulpitstohim.Buttheywerefewandfarbetween.OnApril2,1739,inresponsetoGeorgeWhitefield’sinvitation,WesleyarrivedinBristol.Whitefield

convincedhimoftheneedforfieldpreachingasthemostlikelymeansofreachingthegreatestnumberofpeople,especiallytheworkingclass,whowerethenvirtuallyuntouchedbytheestablishedchurch.Thefollowingday,despitehismisgivingsbutencouragedbyWhitefield’sexample,Wesley,agedthirty-six,preachedhisfirstopen-airsermon,expoundingtheBibletotheunchurched.TheGreatAwakening,theevangelical revival, was born. It was to be reared for many years in an atmosphere of insolence,

contempt,abuse,andviolence.For threedecades,magistrates,squires,andclergyturnedablindeyeto thecontinualdrunkenand

brutalattacksbymobsandgangsonWesleyandhissupporters.Wesleyenduredphysicalassaultwithmissilesofvariouskinds.Frequentlybullswouldbedrivenintothemidstofcongregationsormusicalinstrumentsblaredtodrownoutthepreacher’svoice.Timeafter time, theWesleysandWhitefieldnarrowlyescapeddeath,whileseveraloftheirfellow

itinerant preachers were attacked and their houses set on fire. Hundreds of antirevival publicationsappeared,asdidregular,inaccurate,andscurrilousnewspaperreportsandarticles.Andthemostvirulentattacks, not surprisingly, came from the priests, who referred to Wesley as “that Methodist,” “thatenthusiast,”“thatmysteryofiniquity,”“adiabolicalseducer,andimpostorandfanatic.”Afterafewyears,wantingtosetouthiswaresinplain,rational,andscripturalterms,Wesleywrotea

pamphletinwhichhedeclared,“ItistheplainoldChristianitythatIteach.”HisparamountpurposewastomakemenandwomenconsciousofGod.Hewasfullyawareofthemanyandvariedpowersofevilandcorruption,includingwithintheorganizedandestablishedreligion.HebelievedthatGod’spurposeforhimwastoopentheWordofGodforhisnation,pointingmenandwomentoGodthroughChrist.This,inturn,wouldreclaimtheirhomes,towns,andcountryfrompaganismandcorruption.Wesley’s central understanding of Christianity was that individual redemption leads to social

regeneration.HebelievedthatthemainpurposeoftheBibleistoshowsinnerstheirwaybacktoGodbythe sacrifice of Christ. This is what he preached, but he also understood that social changes are aninevitable by-product and a useful piece of evidence of conversion. Because of the preaching of thegospel, thehighmoralprinciplessetforthinScripturesslowlybegantotakeroot inpeople’sminds.Wesley believed that God’s Word calls for the salvation of individual souls. It also gives us firmordinancesfornationalexistenceandacommonsocial lifeunderGod—thesewerehisgoals,andheneverlostsightofthem.ConvertedpeoplejoinedotherconvertedpeopleinwhatWesleycalled“Societies.”Heregardedall

hisservicesassupplementarytoregularChurchofEnglandservices.HeremainedaChurchofEnglandclergymanformostofhislife—hisbrotherCharlesforallofhis.JohnWesley’sbreakwiththeChurchofEnglandoccurredmuchlater,whenhebegantoordainministersinwhatbecameknownastheMethodistChurch.JohnWesley’slifewasatriumphofGod’sgrace.Underphysicalandverbalattackthousandsoftimes,

neveroncedidhelosehistemper.Hewaspreparedtoendureablowifthedealingofitwoulddiffusethehysteria.Whenstruckbyastoneorcudgel,hewouldwipeawaythebloodandcarryonpreaching.Helovedhisenemies,anddowhattheywould,theycouldnotmakehimdiscourteousorangry.ItisnoexaggerationtosaythatWesley—andallthesethingsweretrueofCharlesandWhitefieldalso

—instilled into the British people a new and biblical concept of courage and heroism. His tranquildignity,theabsenceofmaliceandanger,andaboveall,theevidenceofGod’sSpiritworkinginhislife,eventuallydisarmedhisenemiesandwonthemforChrist.Soldiers,sailors,miners,fishermen,smugglers,industrial workers, thieves, vagabonds, men, women, and children listened intently, in apt reverentattention, gradually removed their hats and knelt, often emotionally overcome, as he pointed thesethousandsuponthousandstoGod’sgrace.Formorethanfiftyyears,WesleyfedtheBible,theWordofLife,todrink-sodden,brutalized,andneglectedmultitudes.In May 1739, the cornerstone of the first Methodist preaching house was laid in Bristol. Soon

KingswoodSchoolandtheLondonfoundrywereopened.Thefoundrybecamethehubofmanysocialserviceprojects,suchasanemploymentbureau,loansforthepoor,andafreemedicaldispensary.TheseinitiativeswerefollowedbyhousesforpreachingtheBible,whichstartedspringingupalloverBritain,aswellasinScotlandandIreland.Meanwhile,inAmerica,theprogressoftheevangelicalrevivalwasphenomenal,ledbyJonathanEdwardsandbyGeorgeWhitefield,whocourageouslycrossedtheAtlantic

thirteentimesbeforehediedin1770.From1739tohisdeathin1791,Wesleywasindefatigable.Hisenergywasprodigious.Hegotupeach

morning at four and preached his first sermon most mornings at five. He and his itinerant preachersdividedeachdayintothreeequalparts—eighthoursforsleepingandeating;eightformeditation,prayerandstudy;andeightforpreaching,visiting,andsociallabors.HeorganizedhundredsoflocalMethodistsocietiesintheplaceshevisited,establishedandkeptaneyeonKingswoodSchool,openedthefirstfreemedicaldispensaryforthepoorandarheumatismclinic,wroteatreatiseonmedicine,andpreparedandpreachedatleastforty-fivethousandsermonsontheBible.Wesleytraveledaquarterofamillionmilesonhorseback,inallweather,nightandday,upanddown

andacrossEngland,onroadsthatwereoftendangerousandsometimesimpassable.DuringthesetravelshecomposedhiscommentaryontheBibleversebyverse,wrotehundredsofletters,keptadailyjournalfrom1735totheyearbeforehisdeathin1791,andwrotesomeofthe330booksthatwerepublishedinhislifetime.HecomposedEnglish,French,Latin,Greek,andHebrewgrammars.Heeditedmanybooksfor the general education of his preachers and congregations, which became the fifty volumes of hisfamousChristianlibrary.*Thiscultured man,keen theologian, andesteemed intellectualwarned his preachers that one could

“never be a deep preacher without extensive reading, anymore thana thoroughChristian.” Everypreacherwasmadeadistributorandsellerofbooksandwasexpectedtohavemasteredhiscontents.TheEncyclopediaBritannicasaysofWesleyinthisregardthat“nomanintheeighteenthcenturydidsomuchtocreateatasteforgoodreadingandtosupplyitwithbooks,atthelowestprices.”Wesley’sbookRulesforaHelpergivesasamplingoftheculturalinfluenceshediffusedinBritain:

“Neverbeunemployedforamoment;believeevilofnoone;speakevilofnoone;apreacheroftheGospelistheservantofall;beashamedofnothingbutsin;bepunctual;youwillneedallthe(common)senseyouhavetohaveyourwitsaboutyou.”WesleyunderstoodtheBibledemandsthatindividualconversionshouldleadtochangesinsociety,and

thiswashammeredhomeindifferentways.ThirteenyearsbeforetheAbolitionCommitteewasformedtoend the slave trade, he published his ThoughtsuponSlavery, a graphic, vehement, and penetratingtreatisedenouncingthis“horridtrade”asanationaldisgrace.Hekeptuphisattackonslaveryuntiltheendofhislife,thelastletterhewrotebeingtoWilliamWilberforce,anevangelicalmemberofParliamentwholedalifelongcampaigntoabolishtheslavetrade.Bythesametoken,Wesleydeploredthestupidityandfutilityofwar,especiallyBritain’swarwiththe

Americancolonies.Hefrequentlywroteandspokeabouttheuseandabuseofmoneyandprivilege.Heworeinexpensiveclothesanddinedontheplainestfare,notspendingmorethanthirtypoundsayearonhispersonalneeds.Buthisclotheswerespotless,hisshoeswerealwaysshined,andheneverworeawig.Hepubliclyandrepeatedlyquestionedwhyfoodwassoexpensiveandhimselfgavetheanswer:immensequantitiesofcornwereconsumedindistilling.Onhumanitarianandsocialgrounds,hepleadedfortheabolitionofalcoholicliquorsforuseasbeverages.Wesleysupportedfairprices,alivingwage,andhonestandhealthyemploymentforall.Thereisno

questionbutthathewasmorefamiliarwiththelifeofthepoorthananyotherpublicfigureofhisage.ConstantlymovingalloverBritain,hecouldanddidsensethemindofthepeopleasnokingorstatesmanwasabletodo.Heceaselesslycalledupontherichtohelpthepoor,andhegavethiswarningtohisthousandsoffollowers:“Givenonethatasksreliefanillwordoranilllook.Donothurtthem.”AsCharlesDickensafterhim,Wesleyputcertainaspectsofthelaw“inthestocks,”holdingthemupto

publicridicule.Inthisregard,heattackedsmugglingbutconsideredthatinmostcasestherepresentativesofthelawweremorecriminalthantheimprisonedsmuggler.Hestronglycampaignedagainstbriberyandcorruption at election times, and against the scandal of pluralities* and sinecures** in the Church ofEngland.Hefearlesslycriticizedaspectsofthepenalsystemandprisons(pavingthewayforreformers

John Howard and Elizabeth Fry), depicting prisons as “nurseries of all manner of wickedness.” Hecampaignedagainstthenear-medievalmethodsofmedicineandagitatedforfuneralreform.WehavealreadynotedWesley’swideinterests,concerns,andactivities.Thelist,however,wouldbe

incompletewithoutmentioninghispracticalinterestinelectricity;vocationaltrainingfortheunemployed;theraisingofmoneytoclotheandfeedprisoners,tobuyfood,medicine,fuel,andtoolsforthehelplessandtheaged;andthefoundingofaBenevolentLoanFundandStranger’sFriendSociety.HepreachedheavenbuthebelievedthatnaturewasGod’sgifttous,andthereforeworkwasnobleandsciencewasessential.ThebiblicalrevivalcausedEnglandtosing.JohnWesley’spoetbrotherCharles,whosefameasa

preacherisstillovershadowedbyhisfameasahymnwriter,wrotebetweeneightandninethousandpoems,ofwhicheightthousandbecamehymns.Johntaughtthepeopletosing.Manyhymnsweresettopopulartunesoftheday.Theypavedthewayforthesermonandpressedhomeitsmessage.Andhundredsofthousandsofthosewhosanghishymn,“Mychainsfelloff,myheartwasfree,”weresingingnotonlyabouttheirsalvationbutalsothechainsofalcohol,abuse,hunger,andpoverty.TheGreatAwakeninggavetotheentireEnglish-speakingworlditsrichesteverheritageofpoetical

andsacredsongsandanunderstandingofhymnsasliterature,ashistory,astheology.Otherfinepoetsandhymnwritersalsoemergedduringthisperiodandduringthenineteenthcentury:WilliamCowper,IsaacWatts,JohnNewton,AugustusToplady,BishopHeber,HoratiousBonar,Mrs.Alexander,andFrancesHavergal.ButCharles’shymns,praise,andprayer—likethemetricalversionofthePsalmsofDavidinScotland—sankdeepintothesubconsciouslifeofEngland.Wesley,Whitefield,andtheirassociatesrevitalizedandreinforcedthetruthsofbiblicalChristianity.

Thiswasanenormouslyimportantcontribution.TheBible,whichduringtheearlyeighteenthcenturyhadbeenaclosedbooktoEnglishmenasmuchasithadbeeninChaucer’sday,becametheBookofbooks.Britainwassavedfromlapsingintoinfidelity.JohnWesleydiedashehadlivedsincehisconversion.Forfifty-threeyears,hefaithfullypreachedthat

menneedandaresavedonlybyfaithinChrist,butthecorollarywasthattheywouldbejudgedbyworks—byhowtheylived.Heoftenprayed,“Letmewearout,notrustout.Letmenotlivetobeuseless.”Untilaweekbeforehisdeath,whenfeverincapacitatedandforcedhimtotaketohisbed,hehad,inhis

eighty-eighthyear,continuedtopreach,write,supervise,andencourage.HediedonthemorningofMarch2,1791.Thosewhohadcometorejoicewithhim“burstintoananthemofpraise.”Nocoachorhearsewasneededforhisfuneral,forhehadgiveninstructionsthatsixpoormen,inneedofemployment,begivenapoundeachtocarryhisbodytothegrave.Itisgiventofewpeople,asitwastoJohnWesley,toseetherewardoftheirlabors.Inthefirstdecades

ofhisservice,hisarrivalandthatofhisfollowersinanytownandvillagewasthesignalforaviolentpopularuprising.Butforthelasttenofhiseighty-eightyears,itisnoexaggerationtosaythatWesleywasthemostrespectedandbelovedfigureinBritain.Afterhisdeathhewasimmortalizedinthousandsofportraits,hislikenessonteapotsandcrockeryandbustsineveryconceivablemedium.

WehaveseensomethingofwhatEnglandwaslikebeforeWesley.Nowbriefly,letuslookatwhatitwaslikeafterhim.TheGreatAwakeningwasasourcefromwhichissuedmanystreams.ThefirstthingtonoteisthatbeforeWesley,thedevoutandevangelicalclergywereatinyremnantin

theChurchofEngland.Afterhim,atthecloseoftheeighteenthcentury,theirnumberincreased,andtheybecamethedominantreligiousinfluenceinsideandoutsidetheChurchofEngland.Undertheinfluenceofbiblicalrevival,religiousnonconformitythattransformsculturebecameapowerintheland.ThiswasevenmoresoinScotland,especiallyunderWhitefield’sinfluence.AfurtherfruitofWesley’sworkweretheconversionsofWilliamWilberforce,LordShaftesbury,and

others,andthedevelopmentofwhatiscalledtheClaphamSect.Thiswasagroupofdevoutevangelicalswho lived around Clapham Common, southeast of London. This community of Christians includedbusinessmen, bankers, politicians, colonial governors, and members of Parliament, whose ceaseless,sacrificiallaborsbenefitedmillionsoftheirfellowsathomeandabroad—especiallyinAfricaandIndia.RestorationoftheauthorityoftheBibleintheEnglishworldamountedtoacivilizationfindingits

soul. Writings of a number of literary men and women give evidence of their recovering a biblicalperspective.PoetssuchasWilliamBlake,WilliamWordsworth,RobertBrowning,LordTennyson,andlaterRudyardKiplingandJohnMasefield;novelists likeSirWalterScott,CharlesDickens,WilliamThackeray,theBrontësisters,RobertLouisStevenson*—alltheseandothersowedmuchtothepurgingandennoblinginfluenceofthebiblicalrevival.TothedegreetheirwritingswereshapedbytheBible’sworldview,theyheldincheckthelogicalconsequencesoftheEnlightenment’srejectionofrevelation,discussedinapreviouschapter.TheimpactoftheBibleviaWesley’sworkisevidentinthelivesandlaborsofthesocialemancipators

duringthenineteenthcentury.WilberforceandClarksonfoughtagainsttheslavetrade;LordShaftesburyand Sadler championed industrial emancipation; Elizabeth Fry and John Howard reformed prisons;Plimsollfocusedonships’safetyregulations;HannahMoreandRobertRaikeslaunchedSundayschools;andmanymoreweretofollow.Thebiblicalrevivalresultedinthenineteenth-centurypreachingtradition.Finny,Moody,Spurgeon,

Nicholson,Ryle,Moule,James,Danny,Chavass,andotherswerepopularpreacherswhoexpoundedontheBibleratherthantellingman-madestories.TheGreatAwakening,aswesawinanearlierchapter,openeduptheintelligentstudyoftheBibletothemasses.ItrestoredtheBible’spositionastheBookofbooks of the Anglo-Saxon peoples. Their biblical revival held in check the character-destroyingconsequencesofatheismthatcorruptedotherEuropeannationslikeFrance.CharlesSimeon,afellowofKing’sCollege,Cambridge,wasvicarofHolyTrinityChurchformore

thanfiftyyears.Wesley’sministrymadeitpossibleforhimtointroducebiblicalChristianitybackintouniversitylife,inspiteofsustainedopposition.Histrainingofyoungmenaspreachersmadeavaluablecontributiontoevangelicalworshipinthenineteenthcentury.Heestablishedwhathasprovedtobealasting evangelical tradition in Cambridge. His protégés carried out or supported splendid globalmissionaryendeavors that tookmodernity toremotepartsof theworld.Somewell-knownnamesareCoke,Asbury,Livingstone,Moffat,Martyn,Morrison,Paton,andSlessor.When the work of the biblical revival had become established, many missionary societies were

formed,allwithinafewyearsofeachother—theBaptistMissionarySociety,theLondonMissionarySociety, theWesleyanMissionSociety, theChurchMissionarySociety, theBritishandForeignBibleSociety, and the China Inland Mission. That missionary spirit stirred up hundreds of thousands ofChristianyoungmenandwomentogototheuttermostpartsoftheworld,oftenatgreatpersonalcostandsacrifice,andservepeoplewhocouldnotrepaytheminearthlyterms.Thatsamemissionaryspiritalsomoved millions of people who could not go overseas personally to assume a moral obligation uponthemselvesforthewelfareofothers,topray,andtogivegenerously.Thebiblicalrevivalaffectedthelivesofpoliticians.EdmundBurkeandWilliamPittwerebettermen

becauseoftheirBible-believingfriends.Theyhelpedredefinethecivilizedworldasthosepartsoftheworld where morality plays as significant a role in state policy and administration as do pragmaticpoliticsandpracticaleconomics.Perceval,LordLiverpool,AbrahamLincoln,Gladstone,andthePrinceConsort, among others, acknowledged the influence of the Great Awakening. The biblical revival,beginningamongtheoutcastmasses,wasthemidwifeofthespiritandcharactervaluesthathavecreatedandsustainedfreeinstitutionsthroughouttheEnglish-speakingworld.EnglandafterWesleysawmanyofhis century’s evils eradicated, because hundreds of thousands became Christians. Their hearts werechanged,asweretheirmindsandattitudes,andsosociety—thepublicrealm—wasaffected.

ThefollowingimprovementscameinadirectlineofdescentfromtheWesleyanrevival.Firstwastheabolition of slavery and the emancipation of the industrial workers in England. Then came factoryschools,raggedschools,thehumanizingoftheprisonsystem,thereformofthepenalcode,theformingofthe Salvation Army, the Religious Tract Society, the Pastoral Aid Society, the London City Mission,Müller’sHomes,Fegan’sHomes,theNationalChildren’sHomeandOrphanages,theformingofeveningclassesandpolytechnics,AgnesWeston’sSoldiers’andSailors’Rest,YMCAs,Barnardo’sHomes,theNSPCC,theBoyScouts,GirlGuides,theRoyalSocietyofPreventionofCrueltytoAnimals,andthelistgoeson.Ninety-nineoutofahundredpeoplebehindthesemovementswereChristians.Allthesemovements

grewoutoftherevivalofbiblicalspirituality,theresultofJohnWesleyandhisassociatesopeninguptheBiblethatledtotheGreatAwakeningofhearts,minds,consciences,andwills.Wesley’spurposeunderGodhadbeenachieved:toattacktherootcauseofspiritualatrophyandmoral

decayandpurgethenation’ssoul.Onecannotexplainnineteenth-centuryBritainuntiloneunderstandsWesley and the Bible. The same applies to nineteenth-century America. Indeed, there were mistakes,misunderstandings,friction,anddiscord,andpeoplewerehurt.IthasbeenarguedthatWesley’ssocialachievementswerepurelypalliativeandthathepointedtoanotherworldastheonlyGod-givenremedyfortheillsofthislife.Butthiscriticismcomesfromafailuretounderstandthegospel,explainedintheearlypartofthischapter.Transformationofanationisanintergenerationaltask.IanBradley’sbookisbutoneofthestudiesthat

detailthereformsthatfollowedinEngland,Africa,andIndiaduringthepost-Wesleyangeneration.Mybooks, such as India: The Grand Experiment, tell the story of how the Bible created a relativelycorruption-freeIndiaduringthenineteenthcentury.JohnWesley’slifeunderGodrefutestheideathathistoryisboundtogodowntowardcorruption,or

that it is “made” by material conditions and institutions. The biblical revival changed history bytransformingthecharacter,words,thoughts,anddeedsofmenandwomen.ItpreventedaFrench-stylebloodyrevolutioninEnglandthatseemedinevitablegiventheharshnessofeighteenthcenturyEnglishsocial,political,andreligiouslife.AlthoughJohnBenjaminWesleywasaspiritualandintellectualgiantduringtheeighteenthcentury,the

realenlighteningpowerdidnotlieinthehumaninstrumentatall.ItresidedintheScriptures,whosepowerwasunleashedforallwhowouldcometothemtodrinkthewateroflife.Mr.Singh,myfellowtravelerintheplane,hadtastedthefruitsofbiblicalspirituality.Butapparently,nooneinEnglandhadexplainedtohimtherootsofitsmoraltransformation—thatis,therolethatthebiblicalideaoffamilyplayedinshapingandtransmittingthemoralcharacterfirstforgedinthefiresofareligiousexperience.*Muchoftheworlddoesnothaverefrigeratedvansandstoragefacilitiesformilk.*Father-in-lawtomyolderbrotherandyoungersister.*LikeHongKong,SingaporewasalsoaBritishcolony.Ithasarapidlygrowingandhighlyinfluentialchurch.It isestimatedthatofthecitizens who matter in government, for example, university students and graduates, approximately 33 percent are already Christian. Thatstatisticnotwithstanding,Singaporeisanexamplethatundercertaincircumstances,dictatorshiporpoliticalforcecanhelperadicatecorruption.*RepublishedbytheWesleyCenterOnline.*pluralities:holdingoftwoormorechurchbeneficesatthesametime.**sinecures:holdinganofficethatprovidesanincomebutrequiresnowork.*Thisisnottosuggestthateveryonewasfullybiblicalinthisworldview,orthatnootherbelief-systemshapedtheirmind-set.

ChapterFifteen

FAMILY

WHYDIDAMERICASURGEAHEADOFEUROPE?

In1831–1832,fourdecadesafterthefailedFrenchRevolution,aFrenchmagistratecametotheUnitedStatesofAmericaonanofficialvisit.HeusedtheoccasionforanunofficialinvestigationintothesuccessandconsequenceofAmericandemocracy.Hepublishedhisfindingsinatwo-volumeclassic:DemocracyinAmerica.Towardtheend,AlexisdeTocquevillewrote:

I have recorded so many considerable achievements of the Americans, if anyone asks me what I think the chief cause of theextraordinaryprosperityandgrowingpowerofthisnation,Ishouldanswerthatitisduetothesuperiorityoftheirwomen.1

Simply stated, Tocqueville believed America was prospering because the American women weresuperior.But,why?Didn’tAmericanwomenhavethesamegenesasEuropeanwomen?*Tocquevillecontinued:

InalmostallProtestantnationsgirlsaremuchmoreincontroloftheirownbehaviorthanamongCatholicones.ThisindependenceisevengreaterinthoseProtestantcountries,suchasEngland,whichhavekeptorgainedtherightofself-government.Insuchcasesbothpoliticalhabitsandreligiousbeliefsinfuseaspiritoflibertyintothefamily.IntheUnitedStates,Protestantteachingiscombinedwithaveryfreeconstitutionandaverydemocraticsociety,andinnoothercountryisagirlleftsosoonorsocompletelytolookafterherself.2

ThestrengthofthetraditionalAmericancharacterandculturecannotbeunderstoodwithoutunderstandingtheBible’steachingongenderroles,sex,marriage,andfamilylife.Upuntilthe1980s,Americawasalmosttheonlynationintheworldwherethesebiblicalteachingsweresothoroughlyingrainedinthepublicconsciencethatacandidateforahighpoliticalofficehadtogetoutoftheraceifitwasdiscoveredthathehadcheatedonhiswife.3AsTocquevilleputit,

Certainlyofallcountriesintheworld,Americaisoneinwhichthemarriagetieismostrespectedandwherethehighestandtruestconceptionofconjugalhappinesshasbeenconceived.4

Tocquevillewasnotobliviousofthenatural,historical,political,legal,andeducationalfactorsthat

madeAmericastrong.Infact,thefamilyisaminortopicinhismassivestudy.Nonetheless,hecorrectlynotedthatitwasasignificantfactorwithprofoundconsequencesforthebroadersociety.TheBiblewasthesourceoftheAmericanexpectationsofmarriage.BuildingontheOldTestamentaccountofcreationandoppositiontoadulteryanddivorce,theNew

TestamentsuggestedthatGod’sintentionforhumanswasmonogamy—aone-man,one-womanlifelongandexclusiverelationship.JesusexplainedthatGod,“whocreatedthemfromthebeginningmadethemmaleandfemale…said,‘Thereforeamanshallleavehisfatherandhismotherandholdfasttohiswife,andthetwoshallbecomeoneflesh’?Sotheyarenolongertwobutoneflesh.WhatthereforeGodhas

joinedtogether,letnotmanseparate.”5MonogamywasnottheJewish,Hindu,Buddhist,orIslamicconceptionofmarriage.Itwasapeculiarly

Christianidea.Itspreadaroundtheworldinthenineteenthcentury,mainlythroughtheWesternmissionarymovement.Whatdidthebiblicalideaofmarriageandfamilydoforthestatusofwomenandforcivilization?Asmentionedinchapter2,webeganourservicetothepoorinvillageGatheorain1976bytraining

VillageHealthWorkers(VHWs).Dr.Mategaonkerandhisstaffwouldcometoourfarmtwiceaweektoteachvillagefolkhowtostayhealthy,preventdiseases,andcuresimpleailments.Thevillagefamilieswouldn’tallowwomentoattendtheseclasses,*sowehadtobeginbytrainingyoungmen.Afterafewmonths,afterwehadbondedandbecomefreewitheachother,theVHWsconveyedtoustheirconsideredopinion:“YouChristiansareveryimmoral.”“Whatdoyoumean?”Iwastakenaback,sincethejuryhadreachedthisverdictafterduedeliberation.

“Howareweimmoral?”“Youwalkwithyourwivesholdingtheirhands,”theyexplained.“Ourwiveswalkatleasttenfeet

behindus.Youtakeyoursister-in-lawtothemarketonyourscooter.Ourwivesaretoomodesttositbehindourbicycles,andtheycovertheirfacesinfrontofourfathers,uncles,andolderbrothers.”Ihadnocluehowtoanswermyaccusers.ButVinay,myolderbrother,hadlivedtherelongerthanI.He

respondedwithbrutalfrankness:“Comeon,youguys!Youknowperfectlywellthatthetruthisexactlytheopposite.Youdonotallowyourwivestouncovertheirfacesinfrontofyourfathersandbrothersbecauseyoutrustneitheryourfathernoryourbrothersnoryourwives.IallowmywifetogotothemarketwithmybrotherbecauseItrustherandItrustmybrother.Ourwivescanwalkinthefieldswithusandvisityouinyourhomesbecauseofhighermoralstandards.Youchainyourwivestoyourkitchensandimprisonthembehindtheirveilsbecauseyouareimmoral.”Tomyutteramazement,everyoneoftheVHWsagreedwithVinaywithoutawhisperofprotest.They

mayhaveremainedskepticalaboutourmorality,buttheyknewfirsthandtheirownmoralstandards.IwasgratefulforVinay’sinsight,forIhadneverseentheconnectionsofmoralitytoliberty,libertytothestatusofwomen,andthestatusofwomentothestrengthofasociety.IshouldhaveknownbetterbecauseourvillagewaslessthantwentymilesfromKhajuraho,whereeveryimaginablesexualacthadbeencarvedinstonetoadornHindutemples.Myancestors’religionof“sacredsex”hadenslavedourwomenjustasitdidinthepre-ChristianGreco-Romancivilization.Ourneighborscouldnotevenrefertotheirwivesbytheirnames.AwifewasBhitarwali—theonewho

belongsindoors.Women’senslavementwasthensoldastraditionalmorality.Theconsequence?Notonegirlinourvillagehadgonebeyondthefifthgradebecausethenearestmiddleschoolwasthreemilesaway.Itwastooriskytosendagirlsofaroutofsight.IttooktimefortheVHWstorecognizethatwhatthey considered morality was, in fact, our women’s slavery. Morality is meant to liberate. Moralitywithoutlibertyisslavery.Libertywithoutmoralityisdestructive.Whydidthewomen’sliberationmovementbegininAmericaandnotinaMuslimnationunderregimes

liketheTaliban?WasitbecauseAmericanwomenweremoreoppressedthantheirMuslimcounterparts?Clearly,theoppositeistrue.Ananemicbodycannotfightdisease.Onehastobuildupstrengthinordertofight germs. Women’s lib began in America because the American women were simultaneouslyempoweredanddiscriminatedagainst.TheBibleisapatriarchalbook.Its teachingshavebeenheldresponsibleforwomen’ssubordinate

statusintraditionalWesternhomes,churches,andsociety.IsitpossiblethattheBiblewasalsotheforcethatempoweredwomenintheWestandenabledthemtofightfortheirliberation?OnefactorwasobvioustoTocqueville:AmericanChristiansbelievedinpractical,social,andtemporaryhierarchyofhusbandsandwiveswhileaffirmingtheirinherent,intrinsic,ormetaphysicalequality.Mostcultureshavebelievedthatwomenareintrinsicallyinferiortomen.Forexample,Rousseau—one

ofthefathersofsecularEnlightenmentandachampionofliberty—believedthatwomanwasunfinishedman.Hindusagestaughtthatasoulwithpoorkarmaincarnatedasafemaletoservemales.TocquevillenotedthatfollowingEuropeanChristendom,America“allowedsocialinferiorityofwomentocontinue.”6It isnotdifficultat thepresenttimetofindAmericanchurchesthatbelievewomencanlectureinthenation’sCongressbutnotintheirlocalcongregations;womencanservecoffeeaftertheworshipservicebutnotcommunionduringtheworship;womencanplaythepianoinachurchservicebutnotpraythepastoralprayer.MostChristianswhopracticesocialortemporaryinequality,however,agreethattheBibleteachesthat

men and women were created equal as the image of God;7 social inequality—that is, the husband’sheadshipinthehome—cameasapartofthecurseuponhumansin.8TheyagreethatJesuscametodeliverusfromsinand itscurse.Thisdistinctionbetweentheessentialmetaphysicalequalityand temporarysocialinequalityduetosinwasnotatheologicaljugglingact.Itensuredthatthequestforequaldignitybecameanaspectofseekingsalvationfromtheconsequencesofsin.Tocquevillewitnessedthe“socialinequality”—sufferingandsadness—intheeyesoftheverywomen

headmired.Thesewereeducatedwomenwho,insubmissiontotheirhusbands,leftcitylifeforunsettledterritories.Theysacrificedthemselvesfortheirchildrenandthedreamsoftheirhusbands.InamovingappendixTocquevilledescribedavisittoatypicalpioneercouplewhohadmovedfromNewEnglandtotheWest,clearedapatchinadenseforest,andstartedfarming.Ifinditmoving,first,becausehecouldwellhavebeendescribingmywifeandmein1976,exceptthatwemovedtoasocial,notaphysical,wilderness.Andsecond,becausethepassageexplainsAmerica’seconomicsuccesstothosewhohavebeeninfectedbythesocialistprejudicethatAmerica’swealthcamefromexploitingothernations.

Wewentintotheloghouse;theinsidewasquiteunlikethatofthecottagesofEuropeanpeasants;there[were]…fewernecessities…onashelfformedfromaroughlyhewnplank,afewbooks:theBible,thefirstsixcantosofMilton,andtwoplaysofShakespeare…themasterofthisdwelling…wasclearlynotborninthesolitudeinwhichwefoundhim…hisearlieryearswerespentinasocietythatuseditsbrainandthathebelongedtothatrestless,calculating,andadventurousraceofmenwhodowiththeutmostcoolnessthingswhichcanonlybeaccountedforbytheardorofpassion,andwhoendureforatimethelifeofasavageinordertoconquerandcivilizethebackwoods….

Awomanwassittingontheothersideofthehearth,rockingasmallchildonherknees.Shenoddedtouswithoutdisturbingherself.

Likethepioneer,thiswomanwasintheprimeoflife;herappearanceseemedsuperiortohercondition,andherapparelevenbetrayedalingering taste for dress; but her delicate limbs were wasted, her features worn, and her eyes gentle and serious; her wholephysiognomyboremarksofreligiousresignation,adeeppeacefreefrompassions,andsomesortofnatural,quietdeterminationwhichwouldfacealltheillsoflifewithoutfearandwithoutdefiance.9

Tocqueville is describing the kind of heroic strength that shows itself in submission, sacrifice, andendurance—qualitiesoftentwistedintoropesusedtooppresswomen.Inthebiblical,democraticcultureofAmerica,Tocquevillemaintains,thesequalitiesbecamethesourceofwomen’slibertyandnationalstrength. It will be easier to understand his point if we see American culture in the light of othertraditions.

VEILEDWOMEN

The Prophet Muhammad made a visit to Zaid—his highly esteemed adopted son. Zaid was the thirdconverttoIslamandtotallyloyaltohisfosterfather.Hisbeautifulwife,ZaynabbintJahash,wastheProphet’scousin.Zaidwasnotathome,andthelightlycladZaynabopenedthedoor,invitinghercousintocomein.Smittenbyherbeauty,theProphetexclaimed,“GraciousLord!Goodheavens!Howyoudoturntheheartsofmen.”TheProphethesitatedandthendeclinedtoenterthehouse.Zaynabnarratedtheincidenttoherhusband,whopromptlywenttotheProphetanddutifullyofferedto

divorcehiswifeforhim.Magnanimously,Muhammaddeclined.“KeepyourwifeandfearGod.”Butinmanypartsoftheworld,itisdangeroustodenythepowerfulwhattheirheartdesires,despitewhattheymay say. Apparently the Prophet’s compliments had grabbed Zaynab’s heart, and the devoted sondivorcedhiswife.TheProphethesitatedinmarryingZaynabsincemarryinghisson’swifewouldbeconsideredincest.A

newrevelationrescuedhimfromhisscruples.WithhiswifeAisha—whomhehadmarriedwhenshewasonlysixyearsold—sittingnexttohim,Muhammadwentintooneofhispropheticswoons.Comingoutofit, he asked, “Who will go and congratulate Zaynab and say that the Lord has joined her to me inmarriage?”ThenflowedtheQur’anicSura33.2–33.7,layingdownthelawthattheadoptedsonsshouldgobytheirownfather’snameandthatmarryingthewivesofadoptedsonsshouldnotbeconsideredacrimeamongthefaithful.GodassuredtheProphet,“WhenZaidhadsettledconcerninghertodivorceher,Wemarriedhertoyou.”Muslim apologists defend Muhammad by arguing that the marriage was contracted for political

reasons. Aisha, however, had a wittier remark: “Truly your God seems to have been very quick infulfillingyourprayers.”Whethertheprophecywasadivinerevelationoraproductofthesubconsciousmind,theIslamicworldlearnedthatitwassafertocoveryourwomen’sbeautythantobesorry.10TheTenCommandmentshadalreadymadeitasintocovetyourneighbor’sspouse.Jesusoffereda

moreradicalsolution—onethatdemandednotmerelymodestyfromwomenbutalsoself-disciplineandinnerholinessfrommen.Heaskedhisfollowerstodealwiththespiritualproblemofadulteryintheirheartsandthelustintheireyes.Hetoldthemnottodivorcetheirwivesexceptformaritalunfaithfulnessand not to marry women divorced in circumstances that mock marriage and camouflage adultery—circumstancesthatusedivorceandmarriageasaveneerforbreakingupfamilies.11Atthebeginningofthesecondmillennium,whentheKhajurahotempleswerebeingbuiltincentral

India,IslambeganconqueringNorthwestIndia.Today,many“westernized”Hindus,proudofKhajuraho,KamaSutra,andTantricsexuality,12thinkthatfreesexequalsliberty.TheyclaimthatIslambroughttheveilandtheenslavementofwomentoIndia.Evenifthatweretrue,thefactremainsthatduringtheeighthundredyearsofIslamicinfluence,Tantra,Yoga,*andgoddessworshipdidnothingtoliberateIndianwoman.13TheemancipationofAsianwomenbeganinthenineteenthcenturywhentheWesternmissionarymovement14broughttousthebiblicalworld-view,spirituality,andmorality—whatTocquevillecalled“mores”orthe“habitsoftheheart.”15Keshab Chandra Sen (1838–84), the Bengali philosopher and social reformer, grasped what

Tocquevillehadseen.Inthe1870shebecamethefirstIndiantodemandthatpolygamyshouldbebannedandmonogamymadethelegaldefinitionofmarriage.TheBritishrulersinIndiachosenottochallengeHinduandMuslimpolygamy.Theymademonogamythe lawonlyfor IndianChristiansandfor thoseHindus who joined Sen’s sect—the Prarthana Samaj. A few generations after Sen, in 1949, PanditJawaharlalNehru,India’sfirstprimeminister,alsotriedtomakemonogamypartofIndia’sConstitution;hewantedittobebindingonallHindus.Buthefailed.MonogamyonlyenteredtheHindumaritallawin1956.Yet,inthemid-1990s,westillhadamemberof

Parliamentwhohadforty-ninewives!Manymenwithmorethanonewifehaveoccupiedhighelectedoffices in India. It is no problem for the mistress of a popular elected leader to contest and win anelection.Iamnottryingtocondemnspecificindividuals.ButIdowanttodrivehomethepointthatourculturehashadethicalfoundationsverydifferentfromthoseofAmerica.IbelievethehabitsofIndia’shearts(habitsgaininggroundinAmericasincethe1960s)havebeenattherootoftheenslavementofourwomenandthestagnationofIndiancivilization.

POLYGAMYTOCELIBACY

ChristianityaroseinRome’spromiscuous,polygamousculture—aculturenotunlikeKhajuraho’s.ManyhistorianshavenoticedwhattheNewTestamentsuggests,thatChristianityconqueredRomebecause,asweshallseebelow, itattractedandempoweredwomen.It is important tounderstandhowpolygamyweakensandenslaveswomen.A domestic incident in the Prophet Muhammad’s harem illustrates one problem with polygamy. A

Muslimisallowednomorethanfourwivesatatime.TheProphet,however,hadreceivedrevelationspermittinghimasmanyasthirteen.Topreventjealousy,hespentonenightwitheachoftheminturn.OnedayitwashiswifeHafsa’sturn.Shewasawayvisitingherfatherbutthenreturnedunexpectedly.Shewasfurious to find theProphet inbedwithMary, theCopticmaidandconcubine.Hafsa reproachedhimbitterly,threateningtotellotherwives.MuhammadpromisedtostayawayfromthehatedMaryifshewouldkeepquiet.Hafsa,however,confidedinAisha,whoalsohatedMary.ThescandalspreadandMuhammadfoundhimselfostracizedbyhisownharem.Anotherrevelation—

Sura 66.1516—absolved him from keeping his promise to stay away from the attractive maid. Therevelationrequiredthathereprimandhiswives,hintingtothemthathewoulddivorcethemall,replacingthemwithsubmissivewives.TheProphetwaspromptinobeyingtheangel’swordthatliberatedhimfromhisobligationtokeephispromise.HespentamonthwithMaryawayfromhiswives.Thewiveswereterrifiedbyhisobediencetotherevelation.Theyfellinline.Aisha’sfather,AbuBakr,andotherspleadedwiththeProphettoforgivethefoolishwives.Althoughmanyofourcontemporarieshavearguedthat theright toeasydivorceisnecessaryfora

woman’slibertyandhappiness,theexperienceofeasydivorceinIslamandtheaccumulatedwisdomoftheagessuggestthatdivorceandpolygamyweakenwomen.Theyundermineawife’sabilitytofightforherrightsanddignity.Ironically,celibacycouldbecometheoppositeendofthespectrum.TheBiblepresentsitasararecallingforleaderswhoneedtogivealltheirtimetoserviceinspecial

circumstances.17 But some Christian scholars misinterpreted the Bible to imply that a marriagerelationshipwithawomanwaspolluting.Duringthemiddleages,theCatholicChurchbegantopromotetheideathatcelibacywasspirituallysuperiortomarriage.TheBibleenabledsixteenth-centuryreformerstorestorethehonorablestatusofmarriage.Beforediscussingthatcontroversy,however,weneedtonotetheBible’scontributiontowomen’semancipationthroughtheCatholicChurch.

ROMANCATHOLICISMANDTHEEMANCIPATIONOFWOMEN

RodneyStark,inhisauthoritativestudyTheRiseofChristianity:ASociologistReconsidersHistory,18discussestheriseofChristianityinitsearlypaganGreco-Romansetting.Amongotherthings,heexplorestheimpactoftheBible’scommandsconcerningadultery,rape,murder,divorce,loveforwives,careforwidows, and so forth, on womanhood in general. The following is from a section entitled “Wives,Widows,andBrides”:

Firstofall,amajoraspectofwomen’simprovedstatusintheChristiansubcultureisthatChristiansdidnotcondonefemaleinfanticide19

…themorefavorableChristianviewofwomenisalsodemonstratedintheircondemnationofdivorce,20incest,21maritalinfidelity,22

andpolygamy.23AsFoxputit,“fidelity,withoutdivorce,wasexpectedofeveryChristian.”…Likepagans,earlyChristiansprizedfemalechastity,butunlikepagans,theyrejectedthedoublestandardthatgavepaganmensomuchsexuallicense.Christianmenwereurgedtoremainvirginsuntilmarriage,andextramaritalsexwascondemnedasadultery.ChadwicknotedthatChristianity“regardedunchastityinahusbandasnolessseriousabreachofloyaltyandtrustthanunfaithfulnessinawife.”24

StarkpointedoutthatChristianwidowsenjoyedsubstantialadvantagesoverpaganwidows,whofaced

greatsocialpressure to remarry.AugustusCaesar, forexample, finedwidowswhofailed toremarrywithintwoyears.Whenawidowremarried,shelostallherinheritance—itbecamethepropertyofher

newhusband.Incontrast,theNewTestamentrequiredChristianstorespectandcareforwidows.25Well-to-doChristianwidowskepttheirhusbands’estates,andthechurchsustainedthepoorerones,givingthemachoicewhetherornottoremarry.Christians also expressed their respect for women by raising the age of marriage. Roman law

establishedtwelveastheminimumageatwhichgirlscouldmarry.Butthelawwasnothingmorethanarecommendation.Itcarriednopenaltiesandwasroutinelyignored.ThebestavailablestudiesshowthatintheRomanEmpirethepagans’daughterswerethreetimesmorelikelythanChristianstomarrybeforetheywerethirteen.Byageeleven,10percentwerewed.Nearlyhalf(44percent)ofthepagangirlsweremarriedoffbythetimetheywerefourteen,comparedwith20percentoftheChristians.Incontrast,nearlyhalf(48percent)oftheChristianfemalesdidnotmarrybeforetheywereeighteen.26Stark reported that in 1955, French historian Durry published his findings that Roman marriages

involvingchildbrideswereconsummatedevenifthebridehadnotachievedpuberty.Durrythoughtthatthiswasnotthenorm.However,substantialliteraryevidencehassinceemergedthatconsummationofthesemarriageswastakenforgranted.27PaganwriterslikePlutarchcalledthiscustomcruelandcontrarytonaturebecauseitfilledgirlswithhatredandfear.Christians,incontrast,coulddelaytheirdaughters’marriagesbecausetheNewTestamentgavethemdifferentmoralstandards—thesamestandardformenandwomen.TheBible’ssexualethicgaveChristiangirlsthetimetogrowupandbecomebetterwivesandmothers.

SEXANDMARRIAGE

Rome’sclassicalculturedidnotseesexmerelyassecularpleasure.LiketheTantricsectsinIndia,manyRomantempleswerepackedwithprostitutes—femaleaswellasmale.An1889studyfoundthatquiteafewmarriedwomenofhigh-rankingfamiliesintheRomanEmpirehad“askedtohavetheirnamesenteredamongstthepublicprostitutes,inorderthattheymightnotbepunishedforadultery.”28

Adulterywasacrimewithseriousconsequencesbecauseitwasaneconomicoffense, takinganotherman’sproperty(wife)—notbecauseitwasamatterofsexualimpurity,adisruptionoftheholyunionofhusbandandwifeoraviolationofsacredvows.Infact,extramaritalsexwithatempleprostitutewasconsideredapurifying,god-pleasing, religiousevent, ifnot theverymeansofGnosticenlightenment.Eventoday,manyHindugurusandYogateachershavesexwiththeirfemaleandmaledevoteesonthepretextof“purifyingchakras”—thepsychiccentersinone’sbody.Religiousandaristocraticpromotionofextramaritalsexhadcolossalconsequences.Easyavailability

ofsexwithoutcommitmenttookawaymen’smotivationtobemarried.Dislikeformarriagehadbecomeevident as early as 131 BC, when the Roman censor Quintus Metellus Macedonicus proposed thatmarriage must be made mandatory. Too many men preferred to remain single, leading the censor toconcede:“Ifwecouldgetonwithoutawife…wewouldallavoidthatannoyance.”Metelluscontinued,however,statingthatmenneededtotakeintoaccountthelong-termwelfareofthe

state: “But since nature has ordained that we can neither live very comfortably with them nor at allwithout them, we must take thought for our lasting well-being rather than for the pleasure of themoment.”29Morethanacenturylater,AugustusCaesarquotedthispassagetotheSenatetojustifyhisownlegislationonbehalfofmarriage.Theneedwasobvious,theargumentwascompelling,butthelegislationwasnotgreetedwithanygreaterenthusiasmthesecondtimearound.HistorianBerylRawsonwrote:“[O]nethemethatrecursinLatinliteratureisthatwivesaredifficultandthereforemendonotcaremuchformarriage.”30Anothercumulativeresultofpromiscuity,childmarriage,mistreatmentofwomen,divorce,andfearof

marriagewasthatRome’spaganpopulationbegantodeclineduringthefinalyearsoftheempire.Unwed

mothersandinsecurewives(whofeareddivorce)choseabortionandinfanticideevenif theirnaturalinstinctswerefornurtureandcare.TowardtheendofthesecondcenturyAD,MinuciusFelixchargedinOctaviusthatreligiousmythologyencouragedmurderthroughinfanticideandabortion:

Iseeyournewlybornsonsexposedbyyoutowildbeastsandbirdsofprey,orcruellystrangledtodeath.Therearealsowomenamongyou who, by taking certain drugs, destroy the beginnings of the future human being while it is still in the womb and are guilty ofinfanticidebeforetheyaremothers.Thesepracticeshavecertainlycomedowntoyoufromyourgods.31

Thelong-termconsequenceofprostitution,permissiveness,singleness,divorce,abortion,infanticide,

anddeclineofpopulationwasthatRomantownsbegantoshrinkinnumbersandsize.Eventuallytheempirehadtodependonaconstantinfluxof“barbarian”settlers.Asearlyasthesecondcentury,MarcusAureliushadtodraftslavesandgladiatorsandhireGermansandScythiansinordertofilltheranksofthearmy.Consequently,Romebecamevulnerable.ThemainchallengetothisdepressingtrendcamefromtheChurch,whichfollowedthebiblicalinjunctiontoAdamandEveto“befruitfulandmultiply.”Comparedtothepagans,theChristians’commitmenttomarriageresultedinmoresecurewomenanda

higher fertility rate. Likewise, Christian opposition to infanticide and abortion resulted in a lowermortality rate. Together the Christian population naturally grew faster than that of Rome’s pagans.Christians’choicesinfavorofsexualpurity,stablemarriage,andcareforchildren,orphans,andwidowsaidedcivilizationbutwerenotcausedbyconcernsforcivilization.TheirmotivewastopleaseGodbyobeyinghisWord.DuringthefirstmillenniumAD,theRomanCatholicChurchwasthegreatestforcefortheemancipation

ofwomen.Inthebeginningofthesecondmillennium,however,the“cultofVirginMary”*andtheideaofearningsalvationthroughreligiosityledtoanunbiblicalexaltationofcelibacy.Theideaof“salvationbyworks”oftenleadstodenialofcomforts—certainfoods,drinks,sleep,sex,marriage,etc.Thismind-set—thedenialofpleasureandtheachievementofrighteousnessbypiousworks—causedpeopletoviewsex,marriage,family,andeconomicallyproductivelabor(necessarytosustainafamily)asconcessionsforthespirituallyinferior.Therenunciationofmarriageandthepleasures(andresponsibilities)offamilylife were held up as pious virtues. Celibacy became public proof of spiritual superiority. Joining amonasterybecamethesurestwaytoheaven.Thisspiritualprideledtogrossprejudiceagainstwomen.Forexample,thepopularHammerAgainsttheWitches(AD1487)seducedInquisitorstothinkthat

womenweresexuallyinsatiablehyenasandaconstantdangertomenandtheirsociety.32Tantricsexualpermissiveness resulted in similar reactions in mainstream Hinduism—exaltation of asceticism andcelibacy(Brahmacharya)withadegradingviewofwomenas temptresses.TheHindureactionwentfurtherthanEuropeanexaltationofcelibacybyconsideringphysicalmatter,thehumanbody,andsexasinherentlyevil,incontrasttospirit,whichwasgood.Forexample,SwamiSivananda,thefounderoftheDivineLifeSocietyandapioneerofthemoderngurumovement,wrotestatementssuchas:

Sex-pleasureisthemostdevitalizinganddemoralizingofpleasures.Sexualpleasureisnopleasureatall.Itisamentaldelusion.Itisfalse,utterlyworthless,andextremelyharmful.33

ThankfullyfortheWest,thesixteenth-centuryReformationbeganrestoringbiblicalnormsforsexual

mores.ReformerslikeMartinLutherarguedthat,accordingtoGod’sWord,sexandmarriagewereameans to holiness. The family, not the monastery, was the divinely ordained school of character.AcclaimedauthorandhistorianRolandBaintonwrote:“Lutherwhogotmarriedtotestifytohisfaith…didmorethananyotherpersontodeterminethetoneofGerman[andProtestant]domesticrelationsforthenextfourcenturies.”34Luther’shomeinWittenbergbecamethefirstChristianvicarageaftercenturies.ThebiblicalnormsforfamilylifethatLuthertaughtremainedvirtuallyunchallengeduntiltheendofthetwentiethcentury.

Martin Luther’s attack on the Catholic idea of celibacy and his advocacy of the biblical idea ofmarriagedidmoretopromotetheReformationthanhisattackonindulgences.HetaughtthataccordingtotheBiblesomeindividualsarecalledtoacelibatelife.However,God’snormalplanforhumanbeingsismarriage.Thedoctrinethatmarriageisspirituallyinferiororundesirableis“teachingofthedemons.”35Luthertaughtthatthefamily,notthemonastery,isGod’sschoolofcharacter;celibacyhasbecomethedevil’straptolurepriestsandmonksintosin.Initially,from1517to1521,toordinaryEuropeanstheReformationappearedasamatteroftheological

disputesbetweenexperts.Ordinarypeoplewokeup to itwhenpriestsbegan tomarryasa resultofLuther’slittlebookTheBabylonianCaptivity.LutherarguedthatthelawsofmencouldnotannulthecommandofGodtomarry.Godordainedmarriageformenbeforesinenteredtheworld.SexwasapartofthematerialworldthattheCreatordeclared“verygood.”36LuthernotedthattheScriptureinformsus:“ThentheLORDGodsaid,‘Itisnotgoodthatthemanshouldbealone;Iwillmakehimahelperfitforhim.’37 Inotherwords,GodmadeEveforAdam.She isgoodandnecessaryforhim—aperfectgiftplannedbydivinewisdom.Godmadeonlyonewomanforaman—thetwoof themto“becomeoneflesh.”38LutherfolloweduphisiconoclasticbookwithanAddresstotheNobility.Thispresentedthepractical

rationaleforpriests(notmonks)tomarry:Apriesthadtohaveahousekeeper;toputamanandawomantogetherwaslikebringingfire tostrawandexpectingnothingtohappen.TheunchastechastityintheChurchneededtobebroughttoanend.Priestshadtobesetfreetomarry.Thenatural,divinelyordainedsexualdriveneededtoberecognizedasanecessary,good,andhonorableimpulse.Luther—amonk—wasstillhidinginthecastleofWartburgtoavoidbeingburnedasaheretic,when

three priests affirmed the rightness of his teaching by getting married. Archbishop Albert of Mainzarrestedthem.Luthersentasternprotest.AlbertdecidedtoconsulttheUniversityofWittenberg.Luther’ssenior colleague and a highly respected scholar, Andreas Carlstadt, answered the bishop’s query bywritingabookagainstcelibacy.Heconcludedthat,accordingtotheBible,apriestnotonlymightmarrybutthathemustmarryandfatherafamily.Inplaceofobligatorycelibacy,Carlstadtsubstitutedobligatorymatrimonyandpaternity.HewentontoconfirmhisBiblestudybysettingapersonalexample.Hegotmarried.LutherwasdelightedbyCarlstadt’sbolddecision.Hewasuncomfortable,however,withCarlstadt’s

proposalthatevenmonksshouldmarry.Lutherfeltthatthecaseformonks,likehim,wasdifferentfromthatofpriests.Monkshadtakenvoluntaryvowstoremaincelibate.Itwouldbewrongtobreakthosevows.Thatraisedanewquestion:DidGodenjointhevowsofcelibacy?Luther’sanswerhelpedcreatethemodernconceptofmarriageaswellasthemodernpolitico-economicworld.ThequestionforcedLuthertogobacktotheScriptures.Hefoundthemonk’svowagainstmarrying

unscripturalandinconflictwithcharityandliberty.Hesenthisthesesbacktotheuniversity:“Marriageisgood,virginityisbetter,butlibertyisbest.”FromtheBibleLutherconcludedthatmonasticvowsrestedonfalseandarrogantassumptionsthatcelibateChristianshadaspecialcallingorvocation,toobservethecounselsofperfection,whichweresuperiortoordinaryChristianswhoobeyordinarymorallaws.Luther’srevolutionaryconclusionisknownasthe“priesthoodofallbelievers.”39Luther’s exposition of the Bible began to empty out monasteries. His exposition became the basic

theologicalfactorthatenabledProtestantnationstodevelopeconomicallyfasterthanCatholiccountriesandtobuildegalitariandemocracies.Thefamilyisacivilization’sprimaryengineforeconomicgrowth.Ifamanhasnofamily,hemightplantcrops,butheisunlikelytoplantandnurturetreesanddevelopfieldsforcominggenerations.Hemightdigacaveorhewatreehouse,butheisunlikelytobuildahomeforhisgrandchildren.Thefamilymotivatesparentstoplan,earn,sacrifice,save,andinvestforfuturegenerations—fortheirphysicalaswellassocialwelfare.

This“priesthoodofallbelievers”negatedapriest’svocationassuperior.Luthertaughtthecobblerwas as important as the priest. All vocations had to be honored equally. Each had to be undertakendiligently as a service to God. This biblical priesthood of all believers challenged Europe’s classdistinctions.Itbirthedthemoderndemocraticequalityofallcitizens—richorpoor,educatedorilliterate,oldoryoung,maleorfemale.LutherplantedseedsinEuropethatyieldedtheirbestharvestinAmerica.On January 10, 1529, Luther preached on the second chapter of the gospel of John. The passage

recountsJesus’miracleofturningwaterintowineataweddinginCanaathiswidowedmother’srequest.Lutherencapsulatedtheintrinsicgoodnessofmarriage,thepriesthoodofallbelievers,theequalvalueofeveryvocation,andthefamilyastheschoolofcharacter:

Therearethreeestates:marriage,virginity,andwidowhood.Theyareallgood.Noneistobedespised.Thevirginisnottobeesteemedabovethewidow,northewidowabovethewife,anymorethanthetailoristobeesteemedabovethebutcher.ThereisnoestatetowhichtheDevilissoopposedastomarriage.Theclergyhavenotwantedtobebotheredwithworkandworry.Theyhavebeenafraidofanaggingwife,disobedientchildren,difficultrelatives,orthedyingpigoracow.Theywanttolieabeduntilthesunshinesthroughthewindow.Ourancestorsknewthisandwouldsay,“Dearchild,beapriestoranunandhaveagoodtime.”Ihaveheardmarriedpeoplesaytomonks,“Youhaveiteasy,butwhenwegetupwedonotknowwheretofindourbread.”Marriageisaheavycrossbecausesomanycouplesquarrel.ItisthegraceofGodwhentheyagree.TheHolySpiritdeclarestherearethreewonders:whenbrothersagree,whenneighborsloveeachother,andwhenamanandawifeareatone.WhenIseeapairlikethat,IamgladasifIwereinagardenofroses.Itisrare.40

Radicalfeministswerenotthefirsttoseemarriageasa“heavycross”—aburdenorslavery.Luther

saidmarriagewasslaveryformenasmuchasforwomen.ThatispreciselywhymanymeninpaganRome preferred not to marry but to seek extramarital or homosexual relationships. Christianity mademarriageharderformenbyrequiringthathusbandsremainfaithful,committed,andlovingtothesamewoman—nomatterwhat—“untildeathdouspart.”Whenahusbandisforbiddenextramaritalaffairs,takingasecondwife,ordivorcingadifficultwife;whenheisnotallowedtohateorbeharshwithher;whenheisrequiredtoloveandhonorhiswife;thenhiswifeisempowered.Shehasthesecuritytoseekforherdignityandrights.Marriagebringsouttheworstinbothhusbandsandwives.Theymustchoosewhethertostayinthat

schoolofcharacterortodropout.TheBiblemadedivorcedifficultbecauseonedoesnotlearnmuchbyquittingachallengingschool.Theonlywaytomakemonogamyworkistovalueloveabovepleasure,topursueholinessandhumilityratherthanpowerandpersonalfulfillment,tofindgracetorepentratherthancondemn,tolearnsacrificeandpatienceinplaceofindulgenceandgratification.Themodernworldwascreatedbycountlesscoupleswhodidjustthat.Inworkingtopreservetheirmarriagesandprovidefortheirchildren,theyinvestedinthefutureofcivilizationitself.

FATHERHOOD

Inhisbook,TocquevillediscussestheconsequencesofbiblicalChristianity,41equality,andfreedomontheAmericanfamilylife:onfather-son,mother-daughter,parent-child,andhusband-wiferelationships.In most of Europe, Christianity had become a state religion. Most people thought themselves

“Christians” simply because they were baptized as infants. In contrast, biblical Christians—whoencouraged,evenrequired,childrentotakepersonalresponsibilityfortheirspirituallives—shapedthesocial ethos of America. Each person had to find God and live in a personal relationship with him.KnowingGodasone’sheavenlyFatherchangedthenatureoffamilyrelationshipsonearth.InTocqueville’sopinion,thedifferencebetweentheEuropeanandAmericanfamilywassogreatthat

the American family was not even a “family” in the European (Roman) sense. I find Tocqueville’sfollowingobservationaboutAmericaextremelyinterestingsinceIcomefromapatriarchalculture.Inournon-nuclear,“jointfamilies”allmarriedsonslivetogetherwiththeirparents.Asondoesnotbecomethe

“manofhishouse”aslongashisfatherisalive.Tocquevillewrote:

InAmericathefamily,ifonetakesthewordinitsRomanandaristocraticsense,nolongerexists.Oneonlyfindsscatteredtracesthereofinthefirstyearsfollowingthebirthofchildren.Thefatherthendoes,withoutopposition,exercisethedomesticdictatorshipwhichhisson’sweaknessmakesnecessaryandwhichisjustifiedbybothhisweaknessandhisunquestionablesuperiority.ButassoonastheyoungAmericanbeginstoapproachman’sestate,thereinsoffilialobediencearedailyslackened.Masterofhisthoughts,hesoonbecomesresponsibleforhisownbehavior.InAmericathereisintruthnoadolescence.Atthecloseofboyhoodheisamanandbeginstotraceouthisownpath…

In[EuropeanandAsian]aristocraciessocietyis,intruth,onlyconcernedwiththefather.Itonlycontrolsthesonsthroughthefather;

itruleshimandherulesthem.Hencethefatherhasnotonlyhisnaturalright.Heisgivenapoliticalrighttocommand….Heisheardwithdeference,heisaddressedalwayswithrespect,andtheaffectionfeltforhimisevermingledwithfear. . . .[Thefather-sonrelationship]isalwayscorrect,ceremonious,rigid,andcold,sothatnaturalwarmthofheartcanhardlybefeltthroughthewords…Butamongdemocraticnationseverywordasonaddressestohisfatherhasatangoffreedom,familiarity,andtendernessallatonce.42

Ofcourse,unfortunately,Tocquevilleisdescribing“ancient”America.Todayasmanyas40percentof

Americanboysdonothavefathers.Theyhavebiologicalfathers,butnotamanwhotakesthemoralresponsibilitytobringthemuptoresponsiblemanhood.AmericaisfollowinginthefootstepsofpoornationssuchasJamaica,wheretheysaythatasmanyas85percentofthechildrendonothavefathersinthehometoguidethem.Thisistheresultofadeliberatepolicyadoptedbyslaveowners.Theywantedtheirmaleslavesto

serve as “stud bulls”—to breed children but not to bring them up as educated, productive people.Uneducatedboysandgirlscouldonlygrowuptobeslaves.WhatmadetheAmericanfamilydifferent?TheexplanationgoesbacktoAbraham.HewaschosentoteachhischildrentowalkinGod’sways.43“Early”Americanparentsdidnotalwayslookaftertheirchildren.AttheverytimewhenTocqueville

visited America, far too many fathers were drunkards, gamblers, and wife- and child-abusers.Revivalists,suchasCharlesFinney,werepreachingthatAmericaneededaspiritualrevivalthatwould“turn the hearts of the fathers to the children.”44 Their preaching resulted in a mighty revival thattransformedfamiliesandcreatedagreatnation.

THEAMERICANGIRL

Tocquevillenotedthateveninthe1830stheFrenchCatholicswereprovidingtheirgirlswithatimid,withdrawn,andcloisterededucation,thenleavingthemunguidedandunaidedamidhugesocialdisorder.In contrast, biblical Christians in America were systematically preparing their girls for responsiblefreedom—toruletheirownthoughts,choices,andbehavior,andtodefendtheirchastity.Moralitybredfreedom,andfreedomreinforcedmorality.45America’s (original)strictsexualmores,whichproducedstrongwomen,werespelledout in laws

consciouslyderivedfromtheOldTestament.Adulteryandrapewerepunishablebydeath.Premaritalsexorfornicationresultedinafine,whipping,and/oranordertomarry.Tocquevilleobserved,however,that“thedeathpenaltyhasneverbeenmorefrequentlyprescribedbythelawsormoreseldomcarriedout”thaninAmerica.46TheNewCovenantisatestamentofgrace.Underthiscovenant,God’sSpiritwriteshislawsonthehumanheart,notontabletsofstone.InaristocraticEurope,as inAsia,marriagewasmeantmoretounitepropertythanpersons.Class,

caste,dowry,orhoroscopesdeterminedthechoiceofspouses.InProtestantdemocracies,ontheotherhand,youngpeoplewereencouragedtoseekGod’swillandchoosewithwhomtheywantedtospendtheirlives.Marriageasalifelongcommitmenthadanotheradvantage.Tocquevilleobserved:

BecauseinAmericapaternaldisciplineisverylaxandthebondsofmarriageverytight,agirliscautiousandwaryinagreeingthereto.

Precociousweddingshardlyoccur.SoAmericanwomenonlymarrywhentheirmindsareexperiencedandmature,whereaselsewherewomenusuallybegintomaturewhentheyaremarried….Whenthetimehascometochooseahusband,hercoldandausterepowersofreasoning,whichhavebeeneducatedandstrengthenedbyafreeviewoftheworld,teachtheAmericanwomanthatalightandfreespirit[permissiveness]withinthebondsofmarriageisaneverlastingsourceoftrouble,notofpleasure,thatagirl’samusementscannotbecometherecreationofawife,andthatforamarriedwomanthespringsofhappinessareinsidethehome.47

In the 1960s, American women began rejecting the Tocquevillian portrait of the ideal American

woman.Nowmany,perhapsamajorityofAmericans,rejectthebiblicalmoresforfamilylife.Onereasonforthisrejectionistheassertionthatfroma“natural”perspectivemonogamyisunnaturalandthatmen,bynature,arepolygamous.Thereisalotoftruthinthatassertion.However,thatargumentoverlooksthatallmoralityisdesignedtobringourpresent“fallen”orsinfulnatureunderthemorallaw.Wearingclothesisunnatural;stealingisnaturalforanimals;lyingisachild’snaturalresponsewhenhegetsintotrouble.Givingfreereintohumannaturewouldrequireabolishingallmorality,notjustmonogamy.History’sverdictisthatbydefiningmarriageasmonogamyandmakingextramaritalseximmoral,the

biblical tradition laid down a foundation for stable families, strong women, children, economy, andsociety.Bykeepinghisvowstoawoman,madebeforeGodandcommunity,amanlearnstokeephiswordinothersituations.Whenkeepingone’swordbecomesastrongculturalvalue,thentrustbecomesthefoundationforsociallife.Thisfoundationisnowbeingshakenbytheproponentsofeasydivorce.

THEPHILOSOPHYOFMARRIAGE

Thebiblicalprincipleofmarriageisbasedonseveralassumptions.Oneofthemisthathumanbeingsarefinite. I am male, not female. God made Eve because he saw that “it is not good for the man to bealone.”48Historically,Hinduphilosophyhaspromotedhomosexualityandbecomefoundational to thecontemporaryinterestinTantricor“sacredsex”becauseitteachesthateachoneofusisGod,infiniteandcomplete.Consequently,Idon’tneedawifebecausethefeminineisalreadywithinme(Shakti).Itliesdormant, coiled up as a serpent (Kundalini) at the base of the spine in the psychic center of sex(MuladharaChakra).Idon’tneedawifetobecomplete,althoughImightneedsexualhelptoawakenthefemininewithinme.Iwilltranscendmyfinitenessasmale(orfemale)andexperiencemycompleteness(divinity)whenthefemininewithinmerises,travelsup,andmergeswiththemaleenergy(Shiva)inmycrown(chakra).ThebiblicalphilosophyofmarriageisbasedonGodbeingpersonalandtriune.Thefamilyreflects

God’simage.ThefirstchapterofGenesispresentstheCreatorasGod(v.1),hisSpirit(v.2),andhisWord(v.3).ThistriuneGodsaid,“Letusmakemaninourimage,afterourlikeness…SoGodcreatedmaninhisownimage,intheimageofGodhecreatedhim;maleandfemalehecreatedthem(vv.26–27).”EverymanandwomanbearsGod’simage.ManandwomanbecomemorelikeGodwhenamanandwomanbecomeoneinmarriage.Ifamarriage

isbiblical,thenselfishnessbeginstobereplacedbyself-givinglove—forGodislove.HusbandandwifebecomemorelikeGodwhentheyhaveababyandbecomeathree-in-one—afamily.Beingparentshelpsthemunderstandthefather-heartandthemother-heartofGod—therealmeaningoflove,sacrifice,andsubmission.Tobreakthatonenessthroughrebellion,adultery,ordivorcehurtsthewholefamilybecauseit violates our essential nature: the image of the triune God, the personal communion of unity anddiversity.Thebiblicalbasisforfamilydoesnotworkunlessoneacceptsathirdassumption:thatweliveina

universe of hierarchy and authority. Christian civilization—Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant—hasmaintained thatequalitydoesnotprecludeauthority.Aconductorandamusicianareequalashumanbeings,butinanorchestra,themusicianisundertheconductor’sauthority.Submissiontothatauthoritydoesnotmakethemusicianalesserhumanbeing;itmakeshimaneffectivemusician.

AccordingtotheBible,thehusbandandwifeareateamofequals.Buttheteamisnolongerhowitwascreated—sinless.Bothmenandwomenhavesinned,anditisimpossiblefortwosinnerstolivehappilyeverafter.Inaperfectworlditmaybepossibleforateamoftwotofunctionwithoutanotionofauthority.Butina“fallen”world,theonlywayateamoftwosinnerscanfunctionsmoothlyisforoneofthemtoberecognizedasthecaptain—notbecausethecaptainisthebest,wisest,oralwaysright,butbecausethecreatorandowneroftheteam—God—hasgivenoneofthemtheresponsibilityofleadership.ManyhatetheBiblebecauseitsaysthatthehusbandistheheadofhiswife,49eventhoughtheNew

Testament defines leadership as servanthood. The biblical idea of marriage survived for centuriesbecause Luther taught that the wife is to give to her husband not merely love but also honor andobedience. He is to rule with gentleness, but he is to rule.50 This biblical teaching clashes with thecontemporaryconceptsofequality—theideasthatequalityeliminatesnotionsofauthorityanddifferentrolesformenandwomen.Today, Luther’s understanding of the Bible’s teaching on authority in the family has become

unpopular.51ThegreatAmericanfamilyisnowfallingapartbecauseAmericaisalanddividedbyculturewars.Ononeendarethefeministswhobelievethatequalitydemandsthattwenty-year-oldgirlsbesentas soldiers into enemy territories (where they are vulnerable to being captured, gang raped, andbrutalized)indefenseoffeministideology.Attheotherendareconservativeswhothinkthatthebiblicalnotion of authority prohibits women from praying in public—that the heavenly Father would bedispleasedifheheardhisdaughtersprayinhissanctuary.Inmyview,neitheroftheextremesislikelytowintheculturewar.Thepainfulfact,however,will

remainthatquarrelsparalyzeandcanevendestroyfamiliesofsinnersoncethenotionofauthorityisthrownoutofthewindow.TheBibleisnotabookforidealpeople.Itisahandbookforsinners.Nocommunityofsinnerscanfunctionwithoutauthority.Yet,authority—howeveressential—isadangerousthinginthehandsofsinfulpersons.TheBiblesays

thatheadshipofasinful,abusive,oppressivehusbandisnotwhatGodintendedformarriage.Itisacurse,aresultofsin.Thegoodnews(thegospel)isthatGodcametothisearthtotakethecurseofsinuponhimselfonthecross.ThecrossofJesusChrististhemeansofdeliverancefromsin.AshusbandsandwivesaresanctifiedfromsinandbecomemoreGod-like,theyfindever-increasing

deliverancefromthecurse.52TheChristianideaofmarriagedoesnotworkunlessahusbandandwifecometotermswiththefactthattheyaresinnersandneedasavior.WhentheyrecognizetheirsinfulnessandfindGod’sgraceandforgiveness, theycanbecomeagentsofdivinegraceandcompassion.AndChristiancompassionisanotherfactorthatmadetheWestthebestcivilizationinhistory.Letusexamineitnext.*Thatis,theAnglo-SaxonwomenthatTocquevillewastalkingabout.*Theonlywomenwhowenttootherpeople’sfarmswerelandlesslaborersfromuntouchablecastes.*YogabeganasaHindutechniquetosuppressallactivityofbody,mind,andwillinorderthattheselfmayrealizeitsdistinctionfromthem(inSamkhyaphilosophy)oritsonenesswiththeinfinite(inMonism),inordertoattainliberation.*TheReformerssawitasa“cult,”sincetherewasnobiblicalbasisforprayingtoMaryorforassumingthatshehadremainedavirginafterJesus’birth.Thereisbiblicalevidencethatshehadnormalmaritalrelationsandchildrenwithherhusband(Matthew13:55–56;Mark6:3;Galatians1:19).

ChapterSixteen

COMPASSION

WHYDIDCARINGBECOMEMEDICALCOMMITMENT?

WeweredrivingsixtymilesanhourthroughdowntownMinneapolisontheinterstate,whenweheardloudsirensbehindus.Thehigh-speedtrafficcametoascreechinghalt.Twoambulancesandafewpolicevehiclesspedbyus.Beforewehadaninklingofwhatwasgoingon,tearswelledupinRuth’seyes.“WhathaveIdonenow?”Iasked.“Howmuchtheycarefortheirpeople,”Ruthsaid,ignoringmeandtryingtoseeifbeyondthetraffic

therewasanaccident,andifsomeonehadbeenhurt.Thatwastheyear2000.WehadjustcometoAmericatowritethisbookandtoexplorethepossibility

ofmakingatelevisionprogram.ThiswasnotRuth’sfirsttriptoAmerica.Shehadstudiedhereforthreeyears,1971–74.Thecultureshockwasstillpotent.Eventoday,Ruthshedsatearortwowhensheseestraffic stop at the sight of a flashing school bus, picking up or dropping off a child. It brings backmemoriesofherordealinNewDelhi,wheneverydayanadultfamilymemberhadtohelpAnandit,ouryoungestdaughter,getontotheschoolbuswithoutcomingunderitswheelsorgettinghitbyaspeedingscooter.HavingbeenabeneficiaryofthekindnessandthoughtfulnessofhundredsofpeopleinAmerica,Ruth

has become America’s unashamed apologist. Sometimes this gets her into controversies—especiallywhenshetalkswithotherAsianswhohavelivedlongerinAmerica.SomeofthemcondemnAmerica’sselfishindividualism.Onafewsuchoccasions,Ihaveintervenedtomediatebetweentheopposingperceptions.Iexplainto

Ruth’sopponentsthatunlikethemwehavenotlivedandworkedinsecularAmerica.OurimpressionsarebasedonourlimitedexperienceofAmerica—limitedmostlytointeractionswiththeChristiancommunity.WefindthatservingothersatpersonalcostisanamazinglyhighvalueintheAmericanchurch.TheIndianchurchhasmanyexcellentinstitutionsthatserveothers.Yet,ingeneral,muchoftheChristiancommunityinIndialacksthespiritofserviceat thepersonal(noninstitutional) levelasweexperienceithereinAmerica. Knowing human nature, however, I have no doubt that behind the steering wheels of thoseambulancestherecouldbe“fallen”men,whomayactuallyhatethepeopletheyserve.

COMPASSION:AFRUITOFTHESPIRIT

KarlMarxbelievedthatreligionisanopiatethattheeliteadministertothemassestokeepthemfromrevoltingagainstoppressionandexploitation.ThoughanunabashedcriticofChristianlove,compassion,andmorality,GermanphilosopherFriedrichNietzschedisagreedwithMarx.HenotedthatJudaismbeganunderMosesasaslaves’revoltagainsttheirEgyptianmasters.Christianity, likewise, was the religion of a weak and crucified Galilean. It appealed to the

downtroddenof theRomanEmpire—women,slaves,outcasts,andthedefeated.NietzschenotedthatChristianityenabledtheweaktooverthrowtheclassicalcivilizationthatcelebratedstrength,sensuality,

andatough-mindedacceptanceofdeathseen,forexample,ingladiatorgames.AccordingtoNietzsche,theJudeo-Christiantraditionwasameansbywhichthepowerlessenchained

thepowerful,bymanipulatingguilt, requiringbenevolence,andsuppressingnaturalvitality.NietzschestronglyinfluencedthoseadvocatingAryansupremacy.TheNazisactedonhisargumentthatthemoderndecadence—thatis,theideasofequality,emancipationofwomen,democracy,andsoforth—camefromJewsandChristians.Thesehad“thegospelpreachedtothepoorandthebase,[leadingto]thegeneralrevoltofallthedowntrodden,thewretched,thefailure,thelessfavored,against‘race.’”1Thispointofview summarizes a striking contrast between Judeo-Christian egalitarianism and the Hindu (Aryan)strategyoforganizingsocietyhierarchicallybasedonbiologicalbreedingwiththeBrahminsontopandtheuntouchablesatthebottom.NietzschewasnotaloneincondemningChristiancompassion.ManyHinduscannotbelievethatthe

poorarenotthevictimsoftheirownkarmaandthatGodcaresforthepoor.TheycannotunderstandwhytheWestgivessomuchcharitytoservethepooranddestituteinIndia.TheydeeplysuspectWesternphilanthropy and dislike the fact that Christians deliberately choose to serve, educate, and empowerlowercastesandthemarginalized.ThiswasanunderlyingfactorbehindtheHinduenthusiasmforDr.Arun Shourie’s attack on Christian missions. Some Hindus believe that Christians serve the poor topreparethemforcolonizationbyAmerica.Bethatasitmay,Nietzsche’scritiquewascorrectthattheBiblehasbeenthegreatesthumanizingforce

inhistory.Itdrovethemovementfortheabolitionofslaveryandpromotedcarefortheweak,suchaswidows, orphans, the handicapped, and leprosy patients. From liberating and rehabilitating templeprostitutestoreformingprisonsandbringingsanityandmoralitytowars,thebiblicaltraditionhasbeenthemostpowerfulcivilizingforce.Today,secularideologyhastakenoverinstitutionsliketheRedCross.Commercialinteresthascapturedpracticeslikenursingcare.NewAgegroupshavebecomechampionsofthepreventionofcrueltytoanimals.Andhistorianshaveforgottentheoriginofhumanrightsandthejustificationofcivildisobedience.OriginallythesewereallexpressionsofwhattheBiblecallsthefruitof the Spirit: “love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, self-control.”2TheseeffortsandinstitutionsaretheoutworkingoftheSpiritthatJesuspromisedtothosewhobelieveinhim,3theSpiritofGodwhoisthe“FatherofmerciesandGodofallcomfort.”4A survey of the history of the medical profession confirms the assertion of macro-historian David

Landesthat“culturemakesalmostallthedifference.”5Greek,Roman,Indian,andIslamiccivilizationsproducedgreatphysiciansandsurgeons;however,theydidnotdevelopmodernmedicinepartlybecausetheycouldnotcreatecaringcultures.Forthatreason,overtimetheylosttheirtechnicalexpertiseandtheiradvantageofaheadstartinmedicinetobiblicalcivilization.Westerncivilizationwasabletolearnfrompreceding cultures and develop modern medicine because the Bible informed it that real sickness inhumansocietywasselfishness.HumancommunitywasintendedtoreflecttheimageofatriuneGod—tobeacommunityoflove—butitchosetofollowthediabolicaltemptationtoputself-interestfirst.Intheclassical(Greco-Roman)world,medicinehadapromisingbeginning,butitdidnotbecomea

self-sustaining, ever improving science. Medical students are familiar with the Hippocratic tradition(HippocratesofCosca.460BC–ca.377BC)inGreece.Thisfirstrecordedpracticeofrationalmedicinerelieduponcriticalquestioning.Itencouragedrationalityoverrulingsuperstitions,magic,andrituals.TheHippocratictraditionintroducedprofessionalismandethicalstandardstomedicalpractice.Aphysicianwasrequiredtorespectpatients,notabusethepowerhehadovertheirbodies,maintainconfidentiality,and give life not take it. The Hippocratic oath included caring for the unborn; therefore, it bannedabortion.Thephysiciantookanoathtoservethepoorforfreewhenneeded.Thisissummarizedtodayas“First,donoharm”(Primumnonnocer).The Greeks thus made the first commendable start in medicine, but they could not build upon this

wonderful foundation. Today, in almost every town in India we have Unani Dawakhanas—Greekmedicalhouses.MostlyMuslimsrunthese,indicatingthatIslambroughtGreekmedicinetoIndia.Theydispense“Greek”medicine,mostlyherbs.Theseclinicssurvivebecausetheyhelpsomepatients.MostIndians,however,regardthesepractitionersasquacksbecausetheseGreekmedicalhousesarenotknownfor rational6 medicine. Nor are they part of an ongoing preventive, curative, and nursing care. ThemedicalknowledgeinGreecedidnotproduceacultureofcare.Infact,thewidercultureoverpoweredandstifledthepromisingbeginningofrationalmedicine.DuringtheearlycenturiesoftheChristianera,GreekdoctorsthrongedtoRome.Themostillustriousof

thesewasGalen,whoseworksonmedicinewere translated intoArabicbyIslamicscholarssuchasHunaynibnIshaq,whoalsotranslatedworksofHippocratesandwrotecommentariesonthem.Rome,however,didnotcontributemuchtothetheoryorpracticeofmedicineexceptinmattersofpublichealth,in which it set a great example. Rome had an unrivaled water supply and public baths. It providedgymnasiums,domesticsanitation,adequatedisposalofsewage,andevenbuiltsomehospitals.After Rome’s fall, learning was no longer held in high esteem, experiment was discouraged, and

originalitybecameadangerousasset.Theabilitywasthere,butthecultureofcarecouldnotbecomeapartoftheclassicalworld.TheRomanEmpirebuiltacultureofcrueltythatkilledforentertainment.Forexample,exposingunwantedinfantshadbeenacommonpracticeforcenturiesbeforeRomefell.GreekwritersPlatoandAristotlehadbothrecommendedinfanticideasalegitimatestatepolicy.TheTwelveTables—theearliestknownRomanlegalcode(450BC)—permittedfatherstoexposeanyfemaleinfantstotheelements,aswellasdeformedorweakmaleinfants.DuringexcavationsofavillaintheportcityofAshkelon,LawrenceE.Stagerandhiscolleaguesmade

agruesomediscoveryinthesewerthatranunderthebathhouse…ThesewerhadbeencloggedwithrefusesometimeinthesixthcenturyA.D.Whenweexcavatedanddry-sievedthedesiccatedsewage,wefoundnumeroussmallbonesthatweassumedwereanimalbones.Onlylaterdidwelearn…thattheywerehumanbones—ofnearly100littlebabiesapparentlymurderedandthrownintothesewer.7

Alloftheancientworldwasnotselfishandpleasureseeking.Manythoughtthatrenouncingtheworld

anditspleasureswasahighanddesirableideal.WhattheylackedwastheknowledgethatGodlovedthissinful,rebelliousworldfullofsicknessandsuffering;heloveditenoughtosendhissontosufferinordertosaveothers.

“FORGODSOLOVEDTHEWORLD”

JesusChristwasbornwhenEmperorAugustuswasself-consciouslybuildingwhathethoughtwouldbethesecurefoundationsofcivilization.Therewouldbeoneempireandoneemperor.Warswouldcease.Theworldwouldbesafeforcivilization.Hisproblemwasthatthisempirehadtobebuiltbyforce,whichrequiredabrutalarmy.Butthenthearmyhadtobekeptincheckbyforce.Buildinganempirebyforce turned citizens into virtual slaves. The entire system had to be built on the backs of sweating,bleedingslaveswhohadnostakeinit.Theempirewasgoodfortheprivilegedfew;fortherestitwassohorribleacivilizationthatJesus’compassionwasseenasradicallightinadarkage.8Christ attracted the oppressed masses because he preached good news to the poor.9 Jesus had

compassiononthecrowdsthatfollowedhimbecausehesawthemas“harassedandhelpless,likesheepwithout a shepherd,”10 exploited by heartless wolves that pretended to be their custodians. Jesusmentoredhisdisciplestobecomegoodshepherdswhowouldlaydowntheirlivesfortheirsheep.11Attheriskofhislife,Jesusstoodupagainstthereligious-politicalestablishmentofhisdayforthedignityandvalueoftheinsignificant,crippled,mentallyderangedindividuals.12Herebukedthecallousnessof

hisdiscipleswhentheypreventedmothersfrombringinglittlechildrentohimtoobtainhisblessings.13Jesus infuriated the community leaders of his day by embracing social outcasts—the lepers, the taxcollectors,andthe“untouchable”Samaritans.14Christ’sbrilliantapologistJustinMartyr(ca.100–165)wasconverted inAD133.InhisApology,

MartyrexplainedthatJesusrenouncedtheprestigethatcouldhavecomefromseekingthepatronageofclassicalcivilization.Instead,JesusbecametheMessiahofthesick,thesorrowing,andthesuffering.Itwasthisthattransformedhispersecutedcommunity.Martyrwrote:

Thosewhoformerlydelightedinfornicationnowembracechastityalone;thosewhoformerlymadeuseofmagicalartshavededicatedthemselvestothegoodandunbegottenGod;wewhooncevaluedaboveeverythingthegainingofwealthandpossessionsnowbringwhatwehaveintoacommonstock,andsharewitheveryoneinneed;wewhohatedanddestroyedoneanother,andwouldnotsharethesamehearthwithpeopleofadifferenttribeonaccountoftheirdifferentcustoms,nowsincethecomingofChrist,livefamiliarlywiththem,andprayforourenemies,andtrytopersuadethosewhounjustlyhateustoliveaccordingtothegoodadviceofChrist,totheendthattheymaysharewithusthesamejoyfulhopeofarewardfromGodtheMasterofall.15

Obviously,theChristianchurchhasnotalwayslivedbythesehighideals.EmperorJulian(AD331–

363) inadvertently confirmed the essential validity of Justin’s claim, however, when he tried to saveRome’spaganreligionsbypersecutingChristians.HetoldhiscoreligioniststhatiftheyreallywantedtopreventChristianity’sgrowth,theywouldhavetoservetheirneighborsbetterthanChristiansdid.16OnehearssimilarstatementsfrommilitantHindustodaywhohateChristianmissions,yetchallengeeachothertoservelikeChristiansinordertopreventpeoplefrombecomingfollowersofChrist.17Augustine,bishopofHippo,explainedthedifferencebetweenRome’skingdomofmenandChrist’s

kingdomofGod.Hewasaprofessorofrhetoric,whosebooksCityofGodandConfessionsdominatedtheintellectuallifeofEuropeformorethanathousandyears.HismotherwasaChristian,butheridiculedChristianity because he was a learned philosopher and because of his “playboy culture”—he kept amistresssincehewasfifteenyearsold.HiscontemptforChristianitycontinueduntiltheageofthirty,whenAugustine realized thatphilosophyhadfailedbothhimand theancientworld. Inhisbook,OnNatureandGrace(AD415),hedescribesthetwocultures—thesecularandthecelestial:

Thatwhichanimatessecularsociety(civitasterrena)istheloveofselftothepointofcontemptforGod.Thatwhichanimatesdivinesociety(civitascaelestis)istheloveofGodtothepointofcontemptforself.Theonepridesitselfonitself(amorsui),theprideoftheotherisintheLord.Theoneseeksforgloryfrommen,theothercountsitsconsciousnessofGodasitsgreatestglory(DeCivitateDei14:28)…Thesedesiresmaythereforebedescribedrespectivelyasgreed(avaritia)andlove(caritas).Theoneisholy,theotherfoul;theonesocial,theotherselfish;theonethinksofthecommonadvantageforthesakeofthehigherassociation,theotherreduceseventhecommongoodtoapossessionofitsownforthesakeofselfishascendancy.Theoneissubjectto,theotherarivaltoGod;theoneispeaceful,theotherturbulent;theonepacific,theotherfactious;theonepreferstruthtothepraisesofthefoolish,theotherisgreedyofpraiseonanyterms;theoneisfriendly,theotherenvious,theonedesiresthesameforhisneighborashimself,theothertosubjecthisneighbortohimself,theonegovernshisneighborinhisneighbor’sinterest,theotherinhisown.18

Augustine rejected Roman civilization, which was characterized by amor sui (self-love). The

philosophyofself-lovebeganwithanassertionoftheanimalrighttoliveandfinditsfulfillmentinasatisfactionofthedemandsofbellyandloin.Itcreatedacommunity,butthatwastheconcordespousedbythievesandpirates.Thisphenomenonisseentodayamongcorruptofficialsof“democratic”states.Itis thelowestkindofcooperativeendeavor.Corruptofficersofahospitalorpolicemayhavesuchastrong brotherhood that no one blows the whistle against their foul play. Theirs is a self-centeredcommunity.Itcoversupeachother’scrookedness.Itmattersnotwhetheracorruptmedical“community”hastakentheHippocraticoath;itwouldearnthehatredofitsbeneficiarieswereittofollowtheself-lovedrivenculture,thesecularcity.Romans rejected Rome’s culture because Christ confronted its cruelties with the gospel of a

compassionateGod.Heinvitedthepoor,themeek,thesick,thesorrowing,thehungry,theweak,andthe

wearytocometohimforrest.Heblessedchildren,touchedlepers,healedthehandicapped,deliveredthedemonized, ate with social outcasts, protected prostitutes, taught illiterate masses, opposed theoppressors,andreconciledrebellioussinnerswiththeirlovingandforgivingheavenlyFather.Christ’sfollowersbuiltuponthis traditionofcompassionfor theunlovable.Forexample, inAD369—afewcenturiesbeforethebirthofIslam—St.Basil(AD329–379),OrthodoxbishopofCaesarea,foundedthefirsthospitalinCappodocia(modernAnatolia)withthreehundredbeds.The monasteries were the real pioneers of the Western culture of care. Hermits and ascetics had

precededthemonks,buttheysawspiritualityasarenunciationoftheworld—nottoodifferentfromtheHindu ascetics. St. Benedict of Nursia (ca. AD 480–547) rejected the hermitic tradition of monkswithdrawing from society to cultivate their own spirituality. Realizing that God loved this world, hepracticedacelibatespirituallifenotforitsownsake,buttoservesociety,especiallythepoorandsick.TheBenedictinemonksimprintedontheWesternconsciousnesstheideaofhumilityandserviceasthetruemeansofgreatness.ThisideabecameadefiningfeatureofWesterncivilization.ItistheoppositeoftheAsianideathatlesserbeingsmustservethegreater.

COMBININGCOMPASSIONWITHKNOWLEDGE

CompassionwasnottheonlyforcebehindtheChristiancontributiontomedicine.Equallyimportantwasthecommitmenttoknowledge.Christ’sfollowerspreserved,transcribed,andtranslatedGreekmedicalmanuscripts. Medieval Catholic monasteries absorbed Greek and Islamic medicine and enriched thetradition by accumulating knowledge, recording it in books, and carefully observing what treatmentworkedandwhatdidnot.Ancientphilosophical,scientific,andmedicalclassicshavecomedowntoussubstantiallybecausethemonasterieshadscriptoriawheretheycopiedbooks,multipliedknowledge,andenabledlearningtosurvivethroughtheDarkAges.Monasteriesbegantopracticemedicine,andbecausetheywereaconfraternalbody,theytransferred

their medical knowledge from one institution to another. These were translated into Latin in manymedievalmonasteries.TheNestorianChristians(anEasternChurch)establishedaschooloftranslatorstorenderGreektextsintoArabic—thatbecamethekeysteptoblessingtheArabworld.ItensuredthesurvivalofGreekmedicinewhenbarbariansdestroyedlearninginEurope.TheBenedictinetraditionnotonlysavedancientmedicallearning,butcausedittospreadbybuilding

upon it. Gradually the monasteries decided not to spend too much time away from their mainresponsibilitiesofprayerandmeditation.Theybegantopasssomeoftheirmedicalresponsibilitiesontolaymen. Christian monasteries began to spread the knowledge they gained from manuscripts andexperience. Medical knowledge was thus accumulated and improved upon, even before universitiesbeganinthethirteenthcentury.MedievaluniversitiesinEuroperefinedandtaughtmedicalknowledgetheyreceivedfromIslamicand

monasticsources.Asalreadynoted,theseuniversitiesweretheeducationalarmsofthechurch.Secularorstate-owneduniversitiesdidnotexist.CatholicpriestGuidodeCauliaco(ca.AD1300–1368)wrotethefirst modern book of surgery (Chirurgia Magna, AD 1363). Christian scholars and artists of theRenaissanceperiod,likeLeonardodaVinci,builtonthattradition,gatheringphenomenalknowledgeofhumananatomy.

ARABIANMEDICINE

MuslimempiresstretchedfromPersiatoSpain.Whenpeopletalkof“Arabianmedicine,”theydonotnecessarily imply that all physicians during the Middle Ages were Arabs or natives of Arabia orMuslims.SomewereJewsandsomeChristians.Theoverallphilosophicalandmedicaldoctrinesofthe

“Arabic”medicineweresubstantiallythoseofGalenandHippocrates.SomeMuslimphysiciansmadeGalen’sdifficultwritingsaccessible.TheintellectualprodigyAvicenna(ca.AD980–1037)wasthemostcelebratedIslamicphysicianoftheeleventhcentury.The greatest “Islamic” physicians—Rhazes, Avicenna, and Avenzoar—were all heads of hospitals.

Theyhadtimetostudypatientsandtofollowtheevolutionofadisease.Theymadecasehistoriesandkept registers of their patients. Abulcasis (Abu’l–Qasim Khalef ibn Abbas az-Zahrawi), born nearCórdoba,Spain,wasthemedicalauthoritymostfrequentlyconsultedbyphysiciansinmedievaltimes.Herestoredsurgerytoitsformergloryandwroteamedicalencyclopedia.Fromtheninthtothefifteenthcenturies,theteachingofmedicinewasbestorganizedintheschoolsofBaghdad,Damascus,Cairo,andCórdoba,whichwereconnectedwithhospitals.Withthistremendousheritage,Islamiccivilizationcouldhavegoneontodevelopmodernmedicine,

becauseIslamalsobelievedinacompassionateGodandrespectedJesusChristasaprophet.Itfailedtocapitalizeonitsassetsbecauseitpreferredtofollowamilitaryhero—Muhammad—inplaceofaself-sacrificing savior, Christ. Consequently, the Islamic tradition could not liberate Muslims from theclassicalpursuitofpower.Itcouldnotglorifyself-givingserviceasasuperiorvirtue.TheHippocraticculture did not take off in Greece, Rome, India, Arabia, or medieval Europe—not even in medievalChristianuniversities.

THEBIRTHOFMODERNMEDICINE

Seventeenth-century English physician, Thomas Sydenham (1624– 1689), is called the “EnglishHippocrates”andthe“fatherofEnglishmedicine.”Hebeganquestioningthemedicalassumptionsandpracticesthathadbeenhandeddown.Herevivedrationalmedicineinsuchawaythatitsurvivednotjustafewgenerations,butcontinuestogroweventoday.Bornin1624inaPuritanhome,SydenhamfoughtintheBritishcivilwarwithhisfatherandbrothers

onthesideofOliverCromwell.WhenCromwellcametopower,Sydenhamtrainedasaphysician.Hestarted practicing in Westminster and began what we now call “modern medicine.” Sydenham was afriend of other Puritan scientists, such as Robert Boyle, and was involved in the Royal Society ofScience.Thesepioneersofscienceandmedicinewerenotconcernedmerelyforrational,experimental,scientific,oracademicmedicine.TheirconcernwasforthegloryofGodandtheloveofhumanbeings.The Bible undergirded Sydenham’s medical mission. He summed up his medical philosophy in thefollowingadvicetohisstudents:

Whoeverapplieshimselftomedicineshouldseriouslyweighthefollowingconsiderations:FirstthathewillonedayhavetorenderanaccounttotheSupremeJudgeofthelivesofsickpeopleentrustedtohiscare.Next,bywhateverskillorknowledgehemay,bythedivinefavorbecomepossessedof,shouldbedevotedaboveallthingstothegloryofGodandthewelfareofthehumanrace.Thirdly,hemustrememberthatitisnomeanorignoblecreaturethathedealswith.WemayascertaintheworthofthehumanracesinceforitssakeGod’sonlybegottenSonbecamemanandtherebyennobledthenaturethathetookuponhim.Finally,thephysicianshouldbearinmindthathehimselfisnotexemptfromthecommonlotbutissubjecttothesamelawsofmortalityanddiseaseashisfellowsandhewillcareforthesickwithmorediligenceandtendernessifheremembersthathehimselfistheirfellowsufferer.19

WhileGreek,Roman,Arabian,andIndianmedical traditionsstagnatedordied,Sydenham’s traditioncontinuestoflourishafterfourcenturiesbecauseitwasanintegralpartofalargercultureshapedbytheBible.ThemedicalsceneinIndiacanhelponegraspthispoint.

INDIANMEDICINE

Indianmedicalstudentsanddoctorsconstitute thelargestethnicminorityinmanyprestigiousmedical

institutionsinAmerica.SomeIndiansimaginethatitisduetothefactthatthehistoryofmedicineinIndiagoes back three thousand or more years. Ayurveda, the ancient Indian system of medicine, has beenpopularizedintheWestbyDeepakChopraandothers.*ButAyurvedaisnottheonlymedicalinventionofIndia.Thefirst textbooksonsurgeryareSushruta’sSamhita. These were compiled between the firstcentury BC and the seventh century AD. Sushruta is said to have been the first to perform cataractoperationsatatimewheneventhegreatHippocratictraditiondoesnotmentionit.PlasticsurgeryisanotherIndianinvention.Theneedforplasticsurgeryservesasanillustrationofa

culture’s impact on medicine. If someone behaved shamefully in traditional India—for example, bycommittingadultery—thenthepenaltywasthelossofone’snose.Somanynoseswerecutoffthatasearlyastwothousandyearsagoweneededplasticsurgery.NoevidenceexiststhatGreco-Romancivilizationshadtheideaofplasticsurgery.ToAyurveda,cataractoperations,andplasticsurgery,wecouldaddmassageandaromatherapyas

examplesofIndia’spioneeringinmedicalexpertise.ButthisgloriouspictureofmedicineinancientIndiahastobecontrastedwiththerealityencapsulatedinIdaScudder’sstoryfrombarelyacenturyago.Ida,ayoungAmericanwoman,agraduateofD.L.Moody’sschoolforyoungladiesatNorthfield,MA,

cametovisithermissionaryfatherinsouthIndiain1892.OnenightaBrahmin(thehighestcasteHindu)mancametoherandsaidthathiswifewasreadytodeliverababy,butitwasaverypainfullabor,sowouldshepleasecomeandhelpdeliverthebaby?Idareplied,“NoI’mjustagirl.I’mnotadoctor;Iknownothingaboutmedicine.Myfatheristhephysician;youtakehim!”TheBrahminanswered,“Ican’ttakeamantoseemywife!”Alittlelater,aMuslimmancameandaskedifshewouldhelphiswife,alsoexperiencingadifficult

labor.Idasaid,“Look,I’mjustagirlvisitingmydad—whydon’tyoutakehim?”TheMuslim,echoingtheBrahmin,wouldn’ttakeamantoseehiswife!NextamanfromtheMudaliar*castecameandpleadedwithhertocomeandhelpdeliverhiswife’s

baby.Sherefusedagain.Bythemorning,allthreewomenweredead.ThatshookIda.ShebelievedGodwassayingsomething

toher.ShecamebacktoAmerica,trainedatCornellMedicalCollege,andthenreturnedtoIndiain1900toestablishaone-bedclinic,whichgrewintotheVelloreChristianMedicalCollege.20MahatmaGandhicalleditthebestmedicalcollegeinAsia,anditbecamethelargestinIndia.Insomewaysitmaybethebest in the world. The professors serve as mentors. They do not practice privately; all their time isavailable to students and patients. The college is also on the cutting-edge of developing medicaleducationthroughdistancelearning.HeroiceffortsofmissionariessuchasIdaScudderproducedanamazingresult.Afteracentury,there

are more women doctors in India than in any other country in the world. But what happened to thetremendousbeginninginmedicinethatIndiahadmadetwothousandyearsearlier?Intheyear1900,whydidn’tacityhavefemaledoctorsornurseswhocoulddeliverababy?SeveralfactorscausedthedeclineandstagnationoftheIndianmedicaltradition.Onewastheattitude

towardknowledge.TherewereindividualsinIndiawithmedicalgenius.Butourculturesawknowledgeaspower—somethingtobekeptsecretandguarded,notdisseminated.Ourlearnedphysicianstrainedtheirsonsandalsotheirstudentsiftheysurrenderedtheirmindsandbodiestotheirgurusastheirshihyas(disciples).Knowledgegaveauthority.Toremaintheexpert,youcouldnotallowyourexpertisetobequestionedbyyourdisciples.Thediscipleshadtosurrendertheirmindstotheguru’sauthority.Thisattitude towardknowledgecouldnotcreateandsustainanacademicculturewherepeersand

studentscouldchallenge,reject,andimprovethemedicaltechniquestheyhadreceived.Thus,Indiahadintellectualgiantsbutourreligious traditionfailed tobuildacademiccommunities. Individualgenius,knowledge,andexcellenceintechnologyareinsufficienttobuildamedicalculture.Itrequirescommunityeffort.

Inaddition,therewastheproblemofcaste.Onlythelowercastesweresupposedtoundertakeserviceprofessionsthatappeareddirtyordegrading.Onlythelowestcastewomencouldserveasmidwives.Besides,allwomenweresecond-classhumanbeingsandtheirhealthandsafetywerenotprioritiesinourvillages.WhenRuthandIstartedservingthepoorincentralIndia,oneofourfirstprioritieswasthetrainingof

villagehealthworkers.Wefoundthatilliteratemidwivesweredeliveringbabiesintotallyunhygienicways.Tetanuswasacommonoccurrencebecausetheycutumbilicalcordswithasickle.Thentheyusedrags to try and stop a woman’s bleeding after delivery. Washing wounds in dirty water increasedinfections.Theseelementaryproblemswerehugeissuesbecausemidwiferywasseenasadirtyjobtobedonebythelowestcaste.Theseculturalattitudesprecludedthedevelopmentofgynecologicalcareinourculture.Karmabecame anotherphilosophical factor preventinga cultureof care. Aperson’s suffering was

believedtobearesultofherorhiskarma(deeds)inapreviouslife.Inotherwords,suffering,wascosmicjustice.Tointerferewithcosmicjusticeislikebreakingintoajailandsettingaprisonerfree.Ifyoucutshortsomeone’ssuffering,youwouldactuallyaddtohissufferingbecausehewouldneedtocomebacktocompletehisduequotaofsuffering.Youdonothelpapersonwhenyouinterferewiththecosmiclawofjustice.AshumanbeingsweIndianshaveasmuchnaturalempathyasanyoneelseintheworld,butthedoctrine

ofkarmapreventedusfromturningthatnaturalempathyintoinstitutionsandtraditionsofcaring.Wehadnodearthofgods,goddesses,andsaintsinourcountry,butmissionarieslikeIdaScudderandMotherTeresaofCalcutta21hadtocomefromoutsidetohelpusseethatthedyingdestituteonourstreetswerehumanbeings,albeitwithrottingbodies.WhilemostHindushonorthemissionaryspirit,thoselikeArunShourie,whoareanxioustopreserveHinduculture,rightlyseeChristianmissionsastheirbiggestthreat.Buddhismdidteachkaruna(compassion)asahighvalue,butBuddhistcompassioncouldnotdevelop

intoacultureofcare.ThiswaspartlybecauseBuddhism,too,believedinthedoctrineofkarmaandpartlybecauseittaughtthatwemustnotgetattachedtoanyone.TheBuddhahadtorenouncehisownwifeandsontofindenlightenment.Hesawattachmentasacauseofsuffering.Detachment,therefore,becamean important religious virtue. That turned Buddhist karuna into compassion without commitment toanother person. Those whose commitment was to their own spiritual enlightenment did not have themotivationtodevelopascientificmedicaltradition.ThedeclineofIndianmedicineoughttoserveasawarningtotheWest.Ourfailuredemonstratesthat

ultimatelythedevelopmentofthemedicalprofessioncannotdependontechnicalknowledgeandexpertisealone. A society with medical genius could destroy the future of its medicine. In the final analysismedicinerequiresacaringculturethatbringstogethertheheartandmindtocreateandsustainappropriatevalues,laws,andsocioeconomicsystemsthatnurturemedicine.Buildingacultureconducivetomedicinecalls for wisdom, and that has been in short supply lately in America. A prominent Hollywooddocumentarian-activistwentasfarasurgingAmericatofollowCuba.Healthcaredominatedthepublicsquarethroughout2009.Itislikelytobeahotissuein2011aswell.Today,manyIndianphysiciansareatthecuttingedgeofmedicaltechnologyintheWest.Yet,someof

myIndianfriendsintheUKhavestarteda“bloodinsurance”companyforthosetravelingtoIndia.Theyassuretheirclientsthatinaneventofanemergency,medicallycleanbloodwillbeflownfromEnglandwithin twohours.SupplyingcleanbloodtoIndia isunderstandable. It ishumiliating,however,wheninternationalathletesandsportsteamshavetobringtheirownbottledwatertoIndiafordrinking.Wedonotlacktheabilityortheresourcestoprovidecleanbloodorwater.TheproblemisthatIndianslivingintheWesthaveahardtimetrustingtheirculture.

CULTURALTRANSFORMATION

AsmalltowninMaharashtrastatewascelebratingthefiftiethanniversaryofthelocalChristianhospital.Duringthecelebration,anelderlypublicfigurenarratedthefollowingincidentfromtheearlydaysofthehospital.Apoorfamilybroughtawomantothehospitalforasurgery.Sheneededblood,butnoonefromher

extended family would donate his or her blood. Deeply disappointed by their fear and lack ofcompassion,andrealizingtheurgencyofhersituation,themissionarysurgeondonatedhisownbloodandthenproceededtooperateonthedyingwoman.Thetownwasbaffled.Whywouldasurgeondosuchathing?WorldviewsblindpeoplesothatcriticscannotbegintocomprehendthatthesurgeonwasfollowingaSavior,whohadgivenhisownbloodtogiveuslife.Themissionarydoctorwastheoppositeofmanycivilsurgeonswhodemandbribestooperateonthe

poor.Hindu,Buddhist,andMuslimcivilizationshadruledIndiaduringtheprecedingthirty-fivehundredyears.Noneofthemgaveuseventheconceptofawelfarestate—astatethatexiststoservethecitizens.TheideathatthestateshouldpaysurgeonstoservethepoorcametoIndiawiththeBible.22Secularismhijackedthebiblicalidea,butitprovidesonlytheform,notthespirit.ItispossibletobringamangoplantfromIndiaandgrowitinMinnesota.Onemightevengetafewcrops.Butundernormalcircumstances,thetreewillnotsurviveandcertainlynotreproduceinMinnesota’scoldclimate.Likewise, thehistoryofmedicineshowsthatafewgreatmenmighthavegreatinsights, theymight

practiceandpropagategoodcures,butknowledgeisnotenough.Medicalresearchrequiresmoney.Butapeoplethatputtheirtrustingreed,ratherthaninacrucifiedSavior,willfindotherwaystospendmoneythan to fight economically unattractive diseases. The culture of compassion needs the transcendent,supernaturalpowerofGod’sSpirittobeabletoloveasGodlovedtheworld.Tobecomeacontinuingandgrowingtradition,medicineneedsthetransformationofthephilosophicalandspiritualclimate.Malcolm Muggeridge (1903–90), the late British journalist and author, noted the impact different

worldviewsmakeontheirrespectivecultures.LikemostBritishjournalistsofhisday,hewasasecularhumanist,buthewashonest.Hedidnotsaythatallworldviewsarethesame.Hesaid,“I’vespentanumberofyearsinIndiaandAfricawhereIfoundmuchrighteousendeavorundertakenbyChristiansofalldenominations;butInever,as ithappens,cameacrossahospitalororphanagerunbytheFabiansociety,orahumanistlepercolony.”23The biblical teachings on love and compassion are not matters of private piety. They are culture-

shapingforcesbecausetheymovebelieversintothepublicarenaofsocialprotest,civildisobedience,andpositivenationbuilding.Compassion,however,couldnothavebuiltmodernmedicalcultureonitsown.Italsorequiredaneconomicmilieu.*DeepakChopra’sAyurvedaisverydifferentfromtheoriginalIndianpractice,whichbelievedthatthehumanbodywascomprisedoffiveelements:earth,water,air,fire,andether.Diseasewasbelievedtobecausedbyadisturbanceintheproperequilibriumoftheseelements.*Mudaliarsaresocially“forward”Shudras,thatis,thefourthclassintheHinducastesystem.Theyhaveservedasbureaucratsandsoldiers.

ChapterSeventeen

TRUEWEALTH

HOWDIDSTEWARDSHIPBECOMESPIRITUALITY?

Inchapter5IsharedthetragicstoryofSheela—thelittlegirlstarvedtodeathbyherparents.Someexpertssay that forty thousandchildrenwilldie todayfromchronicmalnutritionandall thediseasesassociatedwithit.Tonightaround1.2billionpeoplewillgotobedhungry.Adecadeagothatwasatragedy; today it is a scandal, because for the first time in history we possess the knowledge andtechnologytopreventstarvation.Whyaresomenationssopoorandotherssorich?Whydoyousupposemostwealthissopersistently

one-sided?Whydosomeappearselfishandothersincapableofgeneratingwealth?Thesequestionshavelongdividedindividualsandnationsalongideologicalfaultlines.Yet,forthesakeofcuriosity,ifnotcompassionandfairness,wemustask:Istheresomeothervisionofwealth—atrueinnerwealth—thatmightbemoreinstructiveandpersuasiveforourfuture?Doculturalbeliefsandvaluescondemnwholeculturestopoverty?Shouldtheinnerwealth—aculture’sabilitytocreatematerialwealth—besharedacrosscultures?

MOREPRECIOUSTHANDIAMONDS?

Thebirthofmodernindustrialcapitalismwascelebratedin1851atthefirstWorld’sFairinHydePark,London, in a specially constructed Crystal Palace. In part, the fair was a celebration of the fact thatEnglandwastheworld’sfirstindustrialnationandruledanempireonwhichthesunneverset.NationssuchasRussia,Austria,France,andJapan—richinartandculture—displayedtheirmagnificentworksofart.ThechiefexhibitfromIndiawastheKohinoor,oneoftheworld’slargestdiamonds.ItwassetinQueenVictoria’sstatecrownonbecomingEmpressofIndia.ToEuropeans,theUnitedStateswasstilltheNewWorld.Theyconsideredituncivilized.Itdidn’teven

haveaking!Americanshadlittlewealthtodisplayatthetime.Theydidnotevenfillthespacetheyhadrented.TheBritishpress,proudofEngland’sculturalsuperiorityandglobaldominance,ridiculedtheAmericanexhibitas“theprairieground.”America’schiefcontributions to the fairwere twohumblehorse-drivenreapers,oneinventedbyCyrusMcCormickandtheotherbyObedHussey.1Culturalcriticsthoughtthemratherprimitive,andin1851theLondonTimesmockedthereaperasacrossbetweenaflying machine, a wheelbarrow, and an Astley chariot. In comparison to the fruit of older Europeancountries,theAmericanexhibitindeedappearedprimitiveandbarren—evenridiculous;anexpression,atbest,ofthePuritanpreferenceforfunctionoverbeauty.TheBritishpublicwasmorepracticalthanitspress.Afteratrialruninbadweather,aninternational

juryestimatedthatMcCormick’sreaperwascapableofharvestingtwentyacresaday.Thedayafterthetrial,theAmerican“prairieground”wasthrongedbymorepeoplethanwastheKohinoordiamond.TheMcCormickreaperquicklycametodefinetheveryshapeandtempoofmechanizedagricultureandfreemarketeconomy.Inindustrializedcountries2to5percentofthepopulationnowcultivatesmorelandthan

wasplowedwhenmostpeoplespenttheirlivesgrowingfood.No one disputes that McCormick (along with the inventiveness of American culture) transformed

agricultureandtheworld.Whatculturalfactorsproducedsuchinventors?McCormickandmanyotherslikehimwereproductsofatheological,spiritual,moral,andlegalclimateproducedbytheBible.Itisnotpossible to explain their humanitarian inventiveness, pursuit of wealth, business practices, andcommercialsuccesswithoutunderstandingtheirbiblicalworldview.

APECULIARSPIRITUALITY

MypeopleinIndiadidnotlackcreativegenius.Theyerectedgreatmonumentstogodsandgoddessesandbuiltpalacesforkingsandqueens.Butourworldviewdidnotinspirethesesameengineeringskillstobedirectedtowardlabor-savingdevices.MypersonalinterestinMcCormickisrootedinthefactthathiswidow,NancyMcCormick,financedthebuildingoftheAllahabadAgriculturalInstituteinmyhometown,Allahabad,onthebanksoftheriverYamuna.Mybrotherstudiedinthisinstituteand,forafewyears,IcycledthereeverySundayafternoontostudytheBible.Between2002and2006,fromtwototwentythousandpeople—mostlyHindus—gatheredthereevery

Sundayforspiritualfellowship.ThisissignificantbecauseoneoftheholiestHindusitesinIndia—theconfluence of the holy rivers Ganges and Yamuna—is less than three miles from the Institute. Asmentionedinchapter12,practicallyeveryimportantHinduholymanhascometothisconfluenceduringthelasttwothousandyears;sohavemostpoliticiansandwealthymerchants.Notoneofthem,however,everstartedaninstitutiontoservepoorpeasants.The Agricultural Institute, now a Deemed University, was established by Sam Higginbottom, a

professorofeconomicsinmyalmamater.*Hesawtheplightofthepeasants,returnedtoAmericatostudyagriculture,forgedlinkswithMcCormick’sfamily,andreturnedtoestablishthisinstitute.Hispurposewas to inject into Indian culture McCormick’s spirit of loving one’s neighbors enough to attempt toalleviatetheirsuffering.Love is not a common ethical principle of all religions. No Hindu sage did anything like Sam

Higginbottomdid,becauseinordertobespiritual,thelearnedpunditshadtoseparatethemselvesfromthepeasants,notservethem.ThehallmarkofIndianspiritualitywasdetachmentfromworldlypursuitslike agriculture. Therefore, the spiritually “advanced” in my country treated the toiling masses asuntouchables.McCormick’sreaperreinforcesthepointmadeinanearlierchapter—thatnecessityisnot“themother

of invention.”Allagriculturalsocietieshaveneededtoharvestgrain.Butnoothercultureinventedareaper.Mostculturesmetthisneedbyforcingintobackbreakinglaborthosewhoweretooweaktosayno—landlesslaborers,servants,slaves,women,andchildren.McCormickstruggledtofindabetterway.Thedrivingforceinhislifebecomesapparentwhenyounoticethathegavesubstantialportionsofhisincome to promote the Bible through several projects including newspapers* and the PresbyterianTheologicalSeminaryinChicago,whichwasrenamedtheMcCormickSeminary.CyruswasborntoaPuritancouple,RobertandMaryAnnMcCormick,in1809,inalogcabinin

RockbridgeCounty,Virginia.HisScotch-IrishancestorscametoAmericain1735withlittlemorethanaBibleandtheteachingsoftheProtestantreformersJohnCalvinandJohnKnox.ThesereformershadembracedtheHebrewidealofthedignityoflabor.Inaddition,reformers,suchas

LutherandCalvin,introducedtotheEuropeanmindtheradicalbiblicalideathatthecallingorvocationofapeasantoramasonwasashighasthatofapriestoramonk.EverybelieverwasasaintandoughttofulfillhisorhervocationforthegloryofGod.InthewordsofsociologistMaxWeber:

Butatleastonething[intheProtestantmind-set]wasunquestionablynew:thevaluationofthefulfillmentofdutyinworldlyaffairsasthehighestformwhichthemoralactivityoftheindividualcouldassume.Thisitwaswhichinevitablygaveevery-dayworldlyactivitya

religioussignificance,andwhichfirstcreatedtheconceptionofacallinginthissense….TheonlywayoflivingacceptablytoGodwasnot to surpass the worldly morality in monastic asceticism, but solely through the fulfillment of the obligations imposed upon theindividualbyhispositionintheworld.Thatwashiscalling”2

CyrusMcCormickdidn’tlikeharvestingwithasickleorscythe.HadhelivedbeforetheReformation,

hemighthaveescapedthedrudgeryoftoilbygoingtoauniversityorbecomingapriest.ThiswasnormalinOrthodoxandCatholiccultures.EvenSt.ThomasAquinas—perhapsthegreatesttheologianofthelastmillennium—justifiedthetraditionbyadvocatingthatwhilethebiblicalobligationtoworkresteduponthehumanraceasawhole,itwasnotbindingoneveryindividual,especiallynotonreligiousindividualswhowerecalledtoprayandmeditate.*TheMcCormickfamilyrejectedthatmedievalideatofollowtheteachingsofRichardBaxter(1615–

91),theEnglishPuritantheologian,scholar,andwriter,whobelievedthatGod’scommandtoworkwasunconditional.Noonecouldclaimexemptionfromworkonthegroundsthathehadenoughwealthonwhichtolive.Baxterwrote,“Youarenomoreexcusedfromserviceofwork…thanthepoorestman.Godhasstrictlycommanded[labor]toall.”3Itisimportanttonotethatthisworkethic,whichmadeEnglandandAmericadifferentfromItalyor

Russia,wasbiblical—notPuritanperse.Quakers,likeMcCormick’srival,ObedHussey,**sharedthesameworldview.Thisbiblicalworkethic,latercalledthe“Protestantworkethic,”wasdrivenintoCyrusfrom childhood. Both his friends and critics acknowledged that he was a workaholic*** with anindomitableperseveranceandabulldog’s tenacity.McCormick’spassionforfocusedworkmadehimverywealthy,buthisworkethicwasaproductofhisreligiousculture,nothisdesireforwealth.TheWest’srapideconomicprogressbeganwhenitadoptedthematerialisticspiritualityoftheHebrew

Bible(theOldTestament).ForitisinGenesisthatGoddeclaresthematerialuniversetobegood.Manyancientworldviews,suchasIndia’s,hadlookeduponthematerialrealmasintrinsicallyevil—somethingtobedeliveredfrom.ChristianphilosopherswhostudiedtheBiblenotedthatsinresultedinabreakdownof the relationship between God, man, and nature. The most influential exponent of this insight wasFrancisBacon,whohadaprofoundimpactontheAmericanmind.4McCormickwasnurturedonthebiblicalideathatthroughgodlyandcreativeworkhumanbeingscan

rollbackthecurseofsweatandtoilandreestablishtheirdominionovernature.Torepeat,myancestorsdidnotlackintelligence,butourgeniuswasexpressedinaphilosophythattaughtustoworshipnatureinsteadofestablishingdominionoverit.Economicdevelopmentinvolvesnotworshippingbutharnessingnaturalresourcesandenergyforhumanconsumption,albeitwithforesightandasenseofstewardship.FrancisBacon’sexpositionoftheBibleinstilledanon-fatalisticphilosophyinEnglandandAmerica.It

implied that thefuturecouldbebetter than thepast.Asexplained inpreviouschapters, thisHebrewconceptwasborninIsrael’scollectiveexperienceofGod.WhenGodintervenedinhumanhistorytoliberatethemfromtheirslaveryinEgypt,theHebrewslearnedthatGodcouldchangetheirdestinyforthebetter.AndsincemenandwomenwerecreatedinGod’simage,they,too,couldforgeabetterfutureforthemselvesthroughcreativeefforts.This belief became an integral feature of modern Western culture and proved to be a powerful

economicasset thatwouldset theWestapart fromtherestof theworld.Whileotherculturessoughtmagical powers through ritual and sacrifice, the West began cultivating technological and scientificpowers.McCormick’sgrandparents,likemostEuropeanPuritanswhofledfromreligiouspersecutiontothelibertyofAmerica,interpretedtheirexperienceasbeingsimilartothatoftheIsraelitesbeingsetfreefromthebondageofslavery.AnimportantaspectofMoses’missionwastoteachGod’slawtotheIsraelites.Acornerstoneofthis

teaching was that while wickedness makes some individuals rich, it impoverishes entire nations.According to the Bible, a nation is exalted by righteousness.5 Cyrus’s forefathers believed that the

blessingsofrighteousnesswerenotexclusivetotheJews.GodchoseAbrahamtoblessallthenationsoftheearth.Alltruebelievers,theyreasoned,wereGod’schosenpeople.Therefore,itiswrongforGod’sbelovedtoacceptpovertyastheirfate.Evenifone’spovertywerearesultofsin,eitherone’sownorone’sancestors,itwaspossibletorepentandreceiveGod’sforgivenessandthepowertolivearighteouslife.Itisnotsurprising,then,thatwithinacenturyafterThomasMcCormick’sarrivalinPhiladelphia,hisgrandson’sfamilyownedanestateoftwelvehundredacres.Cyrus’sfamilyownedslaves,asdidsomanyothersoftheirtime.Theywereproductsoftheireraand

couldhavepurchasedmorehumanlabortobringintheirharvests.OnedifferencetheBiblemadewasthatitdemandedtheMcCormicksworkjustashardasanyoftheirslaves.Weknowthatbytheageoffifteen,Cyrushaddespairedofseeingpeopleslave in thefields.That’swhenheresolved tobuilduponhisfather’sfailedattemptstofindabettermethodforharvestinggrain.

SPIRITUALITYORGREED?

The2010movieWallStreet:MoneyNeverSleepspowerfullyshowshowsecularismconfusesambitionandgreed.Ambitionisgood,but itbecomesgreedwhenseparatedfrommoralabsolutes.Greedisadestructivepartofhumannature.ItbroughttoIndianotonlyEuropeans,butalsotheAryanandMusliminvaders. Greed explains the loot of Alexander the Great and Nadir Shah, but not the creativity ofindustrialcapitalism.Pioneersofmoderneconomicenterprise,suchasCyrusMcCormick,didwanttomakemoney,buttheywereinspiredbysomethingnobler.AdamSmithhadobserved—asdosomeoftoday’secologicaleconomists—thattheuniversehasbeen

sostructuredbyitsCreatorthatinseekingtheirself-interest,creatureshelptomaintainagrandeconomicbalance.Wemaystrivetomakemoneyinourself-interest,butifwedosowithintheboundariesofmorallimits,thentheCreator’sinvisiblehandturnsourlaborintoamatterofpublicgood.Intraditionalcultures,includingmine,peoplewhohadwealthhidit,gambleditaway,ordisplayedit

bybuildingcastles,cathedrals,ormausoleums.Incontrast,McCormick’sbiblicalupbringingencouragedhimtosaveandreinvesthiswealthinexpandinghisbusinessforthegloryofGodandtheblessingofhumanbeings.Savingmoneysoundssimple,butitwasrevolutionary.Inmostcultures,inmostperiodsofhistory,makingandsavingmoneywasadangerousaffair.Itattractedbothrobbersandrulers,andthetwowerenotverydifferent.Taxcollectorsdidnotgetasalary.Theyhadtorobpeasantstosustaintheirmilitiatocollecttaxes.Absenceofaruleoflaweliminatedtheoptionofbanking,forcingmyancestorstohidetheirmeagersavingsinthefields,walls,orfloors.TheBiblecreatedaverydifferentculture;itinspiredandenabledthehabitofsavingandreinvesting.

ThishelpedMcCormick’sfactorybecomeoneoftheearliestmega-industrialenterprisesinAmerica.Bythetimeofthe1851World’sFair,ChicagonewspaperswereechoingthecommonperceptionthattheMcCormickfactorywasthelargestofitskindintheworld,sayingthingslike,“McCormickconquersnaturetothebenignendofcivilizationandbringsbreadtothemouthsofthepoor.”6Wealthaccumulationviahard,creativework;saving;andreinvestmentwasamodernhabitandakey

featureofcapitalism.InMcCormick’shands,itmadeotheragriculturalinnovationspossible,empoweringfarmerstoturnAmericaintothebreadbasketoftheworld.ContrarytoMarxisttheory,McCormickdidsonotbyexploitingothersbutbyliberatingslavesandlaborersfrommindlesstoilandbyenhancinghumanproductivitythroughmachines.AfarmerusingMcCormick’sreapersavedonehundreddollarsforeverydollarhespentonhismachine.McCormickbeganproducinghisreaperathome—aswasthecasewithmostmedievalindustry.But

when the demand for his product grew, he subcontracted other blacksmiths to make his reaper underlicensetohim.Hesoonfoundthatsomeoftheblacksmithswereproducingsubstandardreapersandthusdamaginghisreputation.Whentheircontractsexpired,hedecidedtoproduceallofhisreapersunderone

roofwherehecouldeffectivelysupervisetheworkandensurequalitycontrol.Thefactorysystemmadeitpossibleforworkerstospecializeandexcelinoneormoreaspectsofthejob.*Buyingrawmaterialsinbulkfromasinglesupplierandhavingthemdeliveredtoonelocationalso

helpedMcCormicktocutcosts.HebuilthisfactoryonthebanksoftheChicagoRiversothatboatscouldbringintherawmaterialsandthendeliverthefinishedproduct.Thevolumeofproductionatthefactoryjustified the installationofa30-horsepowersteamengine thatbecamethewonderofChicago.Later,McCormickplayedavery important role inbringing therailway line toChicago—aline thatservedeveryone’sinterest.

SPIRITUALITYANDECONOMICS

Howcouldadevoutlyreligiousmanamassafortuneoftenmilliondollars—ahugesuminthosedays?Didn’tJesussayyoucannotservebothGodandmoney?7HowcouldMcCormickbebothdevotedtoChristanddedicatedtomakingmoney?Thecontradictionisresolvedwhenwerealizethatalmosttwo-thirdsofJesus’parablesintheGospels

areaboutmoney.Theyarenotaboutrituals,meditation,mysticalexperiences,asceticism,orwhatmanycall“spiritual”disciplines.Christ’sparableofthetalents,forexample,isahelpfulkeyinunderstandingMcCormick’sapparentlycontradictorypassionstoserveChristandmakemoney.MorethanahundredyearsbeforeAdamSmith,JohnLilburnehadusedthisparabletoteachfreemarketeconomy.AccordingtoJesus’parable,thekingdomofheaven“willbelikeamangoingonajourney,whocalled

hisservantsandentrustedtothemhisproperty.Toonehegavefivetalents,toanothertwo,toanotherone,toeachaccordingtohisability.Thenhewentaway.Hewhohadreceivedthefivetalentswentatonceandtradedwiththem,andhemadefivetalentsmore.Soalsohewhohadthetwotalentsalsomadetwotalentsmore.Buthewhohadreceivedtheonetalentwentandduginthegroundandhidhismaster’smoney.”Whenthemasterreturned,hisresponsetobothofthosewhohadinvestedandmadeaprofitwas,“Welldone,goodandfaithfulservant.Youhavebeenfaithfuloveralittle;Iwillsetyouovermuch.Enterintothejoyofyourmaster.”Butthemanwhohidhisonetalentoutoffearwascalled“wicked.”8Such teachings of the Bible helped McCormick’s religious tradition equate spirituality with

stewardship.Infact,thewordeconomycomesfromtheGreekwordoikonome—whichmeans“tomanageahouseholdwithcareandthrift.”TheEnglishNewTestamenttranslatesoikonomos—meaning“onewhomanagesahousehold”—assteward,anAnglo-Saxonwordthatoriginallymeantthe“ward”or“keeperofastyorcattle.”ForMcCormick,turningfivethousanddollarsintotenthousanddollarswasbeingagoodsteward,which,onJesus’ownauthority,wassynonymouswithbeingspiritual.EconomicshasbecomesuchacomplexsubjectthatourageconfersNobelPrizesoneconomistsand

routinely gives six-figure salaries to financial analysts. Therefore it could sound incredible that ourcomplexsystemofcapitalismwascreatedbytheBible’ssimpleparables.Nevertheless,McCormickwasasimplemanwithasimplefaith,andsimplemenandwomenlikehimmadeAmericagreat.The point can be illustrated by another example: Fra Luca Bartolomeo de Pacioli (1446–1517), a

fifteenth-century Franciscan monk in Venice, first described capitalism’s double-entry bookkeepingsystem.*Withoutthiskindofaccounting,abusinesscannotchartitsprofitsorlosses.Itcannotfindwaystominimizeexpensesandmaximizeincome.Itcannotplanforgrowth,norcanitknowwithcertaintywhenitisbesttofoldupaparticularventure.Pacioliwroteonthescienceandtheologyofmathematics.9Heexplicitlyrecommendedthatpeople

shouldbeginalltheireconomictransactionsinthenameofGod.Thedouble-entrybookkeepingsystemisvitalnotjustforprivateentrepreneurs,butiscrucialtothewealthofanation.AmericanandEuropeaneconomiesappeartobeheadedformajordisastersbecausetheyhavechosentoincurhugelossesanddebts.

Pacioli was a contemporary of Christopher Columbus (1451–1506). Almost a century beforeColumbus,ChineseadmiralZhenglaunchedanavalexpeditionof317shipswithtwenty-eightthousandmen.Thelargestoftheseshipswas400feetlongand160feetwide.Incontrast,theSantaMaria,theship on which Columbus sailed in 1492, was only 85 feet long. TheNinaand thePinta were evensmaller.TheChinesevesselshadwatertankstoensureasupplyoffreshwaterforamonthormore.Thatexpeditiontellsusthatinsomeaspectsofshipbuildingandseatravel,ChinawascenturiesaheadoftheWest.HershipsruledtheAsianseas,atleastforafewyears.Despitesuchawesomeseapower,theChinesefailedtoprofitfromit.Couldn’ttheyhavecolonizedEurope,oratleastAsiaandAfrica?Theycouldhave.Buttheycouldnot

evensustaintheirshipbuilding.AnimportantfactorbehindtheirfailurewasthattheChinesedidnotkeepaccountoftheirexpensesandtheirincome.TheimpressiveChinesevesselscarriedvaluablecargosuchas silk, porcelain, strange animals, jewels, and exotic foods and plants to enrich the Chinesepharmacopeia.But these treasureswerenotmeant toserve theChinesepeople. Instead,asProfessorLandespointedout,theywereusedtoenhanceChineseprestigeinthecontextofgiftgiving.10Thedesire to impressbarbarianscouldnotfeedthetensof thousandsofshipbuilders,sailors,and

soldiersinvolvedintheexpeditions.Nordidithelptheirfamiliesandrelativesbackhome.Thisculturaltrait—elevatingprestigebeforeprofits—helpedputtheChinesesofardownafinancialholethattheyhadtoabandonshipbuildingandoceangoingaltogether.AtthattimethefarthesttheytraveledwasAfrica.Thefirst Chinese ship to arrive in Europe was in 1851, for the first World’s Fair, where McCormickdisplayedhisreaper.The power of Christ’s parable becomes apparent when we realize that the mentality of preferring

prestige over profits is a problem that has continued to plague nations into our own times. Theunprofitablemegaprojectsofthecommunistcountriesdrovetheirnationstobankruptcy.Theyworkedforthegloryofthestate,notforthegloryofGod.Forthemthestatewastheultimateauthority,andthosewhoworkedforthestatewerenotrequiredtogiveanaccountofhowtheyusednationalresources,eithermaterialsorpersonnel.Thatmentalityproducedpoverty,whichinturnproducedtherevoltledbytheSolidarity movement in the 1980s. The revolt began among the workers in the shipyard of Gdansk,Poland,andittriggeredthecollapseofcommunism—oneofthemostbrillianteconomicideologiesofthemodernworld.Onereasonbehindcommunism’sfailurewasitsrefusaltoacceptthenotionofprivatepropertyrights,

especiallyintellectualpropertyrights.Thecommunistcountriesvestedallpropertyinthestate—whichhadtherighttostealfromitscitizens.Butstatesdonotinvent.Peopleinvent,providedtheirintellectualpropertyissafefromprivateorpublicinfringement.Russia,asuperpower,wasreducedtobankruptcybecausethestatedeliberatelyrejectedoneoftheTen

Commandments—“Youshallnotsteal.”Inthenameofcollectivization,ittookawaycitizens’property.Theyhadtoworknotforthemselvesortheirchildren,butfortheir(secular)god—thestate.America,onthe other hand, succeeded because it had an inventive culture where people like McCormick couldsucceed.TheBiblegeneratedsuchamoralclimateinAmericathatinventorsandinvestorscoulddefendtheir rights without recruiting militia or bribing officials. That is very difficult in most nonbiblicalcultureseventoday.Even if it is true that fivecenturiesago imperialChinaslidbackeconomicallybecause itdidnot

operateonbiblicalprinciplesofstewardship,whatabout thesuccessofnonbiblicalnations,suchasmodernJapan,China,andIndia?

JAPAN,CHINA,ANDINDIA

JapanandcontemporaryChinaandIndiaillustratemythesisequallywell.LetusfocusonJapan,sinceit

wasthefirstAsiancountrytoovertakeEurope.EuropeansreachedJapaninthemiddleofthesixteenthcentury,justaftertheReformationhadbeguntotransformEurope.TheEuropeansimpressedtheJapanese,especiallywiththeirgunsandtechnology.Theywereanxioustolearntheforeigners’secrets.AsDavidLandespointedout,learningfromothershadbeenoneofthestrengthsofJapaneseculture.11Muchoftheirlanguage, writing, silk work, ceramics, printing, painting, furnishings, and religion came from China,someofitviaKorea.LearningfromothersdidnotmaketheJapanesefeelinferior,becausetheyalwaysimproveduponwhat

theylearned.TheJapanesesoonimprovedontheEuropeangunsandin theprocessmasteredrelatedskills. Japanese sages quickly learned that in Europe eyeglasses had doubled the scholarly output ofEuropeanmonksandincreasedtheproductivityofskilledworkers.TheyalsolearnedtomakewatchesbecausewatchmakinghadbeenthegreatestachievementofmechanicalengineeringinEurope.Imitatingandimprovingthemakingofguns,eyeglasses,andwatcheslaidthefoundationofmechanicalskillsinJapan.ButtheJapaneseadoptedmorethanEuropeanscienceandtechnology.ManyJapanesealsoadopted

Christianity,the“European”religion.Bythebeginningoftheseventeenthcentury,betweenthreehundredthousandandsevenhundredthousandJapanese,includingmanyfromtherulingclass,hadconvertedtoChristianity. Some converted out of conviction; others sought better terms for trade. Some used theirconversionasameanstoferretouttechnologicalsecrets.PortugueseandSpanishsailors,merchants,andsoldiers,however,didnotmakegoodmissionaries.TheirarroganceturnedtheJapaneserulersagainstChristianity.Asaresult,ShogunIeyasubannedChristianityfromJapanin1612.In1616allforeignmerchantvessels—exceptthosefromChina—werebarredfromportsotherthan

Nagasaki and Hirado. Japan was totally off-limits to the Spanish and Portuguese in 1624 and 1639respectively.In1637,theJapanesepeoplewerenotallowedtoleavetheircountry.During1637to1638,nearlythirty-seventhousandChristiansweremassacredatShimabaraalone.Interestingly,followingthetragedy,gunswereallbutbannedinJapan.Gunsmithswereputoutofbusiness,andallweaponswereroundedupandmelted.TheresultingmetalwasfashionedintoanenormousstatueoftheBuddha.TheBritishterminatedalltradewithJapan.OnlytheDutchcontinuedtotradewiththeLandofthe

RisingSun.Buteventheywerenotallowedtoenterthemainland.TheywererestrictedtojusttwostreetsontheartificialislandofDeshimainNagasakiBay.HollandbecameJapan’sonlyconnectiontotheWest.Bythe1720ssomeJapaneseindividualsrealizedthatthepolicyofvirtualisolationwasunwise.Europewasadvancingrapidly,andJapanneededtolearnallitcouldfromit.ThoseinpowerwerepersuadedtoallowsecularbooksfromHollandtoenterthecountry.Japanese

scholarscalledRangakushawereassignedtostudythosebooks.SomepowerfulandinfluentialJapaneseobjectedtothechangeinpolicy,sotheRangakushahadtotreadlightly.OneRangakushainparticular,OtsukiGentaku,theauthorofLaddertoDutchStudies,defendedhisprofession.Dutchlearningisnotperfect,heargued,butifwechoosegoodpointsandfollowthem,whatharmcouldcomefromthat?IttookalmostanothercenturyforJapantorealizethatwhileitwasstagnating,Europewasgrowingrapidly.Finally,in1867,thenewJapaneseemperorMeijireopenedthemajorJapaneseportsforglobaltrade.The Rangakusha, the technicians, and the forward-looking bureaucrats became the new

revolutionaries.Foreignexpertsandtechnicianswerehiredasconsultants.JapanesedelegatesweresenttoEuropeandAmericatolearnalltheycouldabouteverything.InOctober1871,PrinceIwakuraTomomiheaded a delegation that included innovators like Okubo Toshimichi. This distinguished Japanesedelegationvisitedfactories,forges,shipyards,armories,railways,andcanalsontwocontinents.Itdidnotreturnuntiltwoyearslater,inSeptember1873.Theywereladenwiththespoilsoflearningandonfirewithenthusiasmforreform.Japanbecamethefirstnon-WesternnationtobegintheprocessofimitatingandimprovinguponWesternscienceandtechnology,economicphilosophyandinfrastructure.ContactbetweentheWestandJapanhasrunthegamutofcommerce,conversion,tragedy,competition,

and peace. The strength of the Japanese culture is its willingness to learn from the success of theProtestantnations.EventheCatholicandOrthodoxChristiannationswereslowtolearntheprinciplesofeconomic development from nations transformed by the Bible. The Japanese penchant for learning,modifying,andnurturingisaculturalnormthatwasapplicabletomoreandmorecomplexityandquality.AfterWorldWarII,JapaninvitedAmericanDr.W.EdwardsDeming,theleadingexpertinthequality

revolution,toteachthemhowtoimproveonquality.12Today,Japaneseproducts,competitiveness,andquality are second to none. Japan brought its inherent cultural strengths to bear on its economy. TheJapaneseeconomybegantoflounderinthetwenty-firstcenturybecauseithasnotyetfoundthespiritualresourcestodealwithcorruptioninhighplaces.Inaddition,nonobservanceoftheSabbathresultedintheneglectofthefamily.Officeandfactoryworkersworkedforsixdays,andontheSabbaththeyattendedcompanyrelatedparties.Frustratedandinsecurewivesdecidedthattheydidnotwanttohavechildreniftheyhadtobringthem

upbythemselves.Fewerchildrenmeantanagingpopulation.ThathasnowbecomethemostseriousconcernforthefutureoftheJapaneseeconomy.Japanrecognizestheproblemandhasinvestedmoreonroboticsthanalmostanyothernation.Robotscanincreasinglydoalotofthings.Theproblemisthattheyareapoorsubstituteforchildrenbecausetheydon’tpayintothesocialsecuritysystem.Bethatasitmay,fordecadesJapandidbetterthanIndiaorChinabecausethosenationsenviedandhatedtheWest.SomeAsiannationsdemandedaid,butIndiawastooproudtolearnfromtheWestasJapandid.Ourfortunesbegantochangeonlyafterwerealizedthathumilityisavirtue.We cannot understand Japan without understanding Holland and its impact on Japan. Before the

Reformation,RomanCatholicChurcheswereopensevendaysaweekinHolland.ThedevoutwenttothechurchwhenevertheywantedtomeetwithGod.Theywouldlighttheircandles,kneel,andpray.AftertheReformation, the Church leaders decided to lock their churches on Sunday nights. Not because theybecamelessreligious,butbecausetheybecamemorereligious.ReformerslearnedfromtheBiblethatthechurchwasnottheonlyplacetomeetwithGod.IfGodhad

calledyoutobeawoodcutter,thenonMondaymorningyououghttomeetwithGodintheforest.Ifhehadcalled you to be a shoemaker, then on Monday morning he expected you to meet with him on theworkbench.Ifhehadcalledyoutobeahomemaker,youneededtoserveGodwhiletakingcareofyourwindowplants.ThismadeDutchhomesbeautifulandeventuallyimpactedJapanesehomes.When a shoemaker begins to make his shoes for God, he does not use substandard material or

workmanship.Hedoesnotcutcorners;hisworkisofthehigheststandards.Thisbiblicaldoctrineofcalling,rediscoveredduringtheReformation,wasattherootofHolland’sexcellence.Japaneseworkmenhadtocompeteagainstitandlearntooutdoit.Somesociologistsarguethatthemodernworldisaproductofthebiblicaldoctrineof“vocation”orcalling.13WhyhastheJapaneseeconomybeguntostagnatenow?WhyaretheprimeministersofJapanforcedto

resignoneafteranotherunderchargesofcorruption?ManyobserversfeelthatJapanhasgoneasfarasanationcanbyimitatingbiblicaleconomicprinciples.Tomovetothenextlevel,ithastofindspiritualresourcestobecomeanopen,transparent,trustworthy,moralsociety.OtherwisethewealthyinJapanwillsavemoreoftheirmoneyinSwissbanks,ratherthaninvestwithinJapan.Likewise,iftheBiblewastheforce that kept corruption down in Europe and America, then its rejection now is bound to increasecorruption,destroyingthemoralclimaterequiredforthesuccessofmenlikeMcCormick.Integrity isnotanatural,universalhumantrait.Aneconomicsystembuilton trust isboundto

collapsewithoutthespiritualresourcesthatservedasitsfoundations.

SPIRITUALITYTHATSAVEDINDUSTRIALCAPITALISM

CyrusMcCormickwasnotmerelyaninventor;hewasalsoaninnovativemarketingstrategist.Hisgoal

wastomakethebestandmostaffordablereaperavailabletoasmanypeopleaspossible.FollowingtheteachingsoftheBibleasexpoundedbyLuther,Calvin,andotherreformers,McCormickbelievedthatthebusinessofsellinghisreaperwasGod’swillforhis life.Sohestrovetobecomethebestsalesmanpossible. The Dictionary of American Biography records that McCormick was among the first tointroducetheuseoffieldtrials,guarantees,testimonialsinadvertising,cash,anddeferredpayment.14McCormickinvitedfarmerstotakethereaperinMay,beforetheharvest,withoutpayingforit.Over

the summer, his salesmen would train the farmers how to use the machine. During the harvest,McCormick’ssalesmenwerereadilyavailablewithspareparts.Thefarmersdidn’thavetopayforthereaperuntilDecember—whentheyweresurethatthereaperwascost-effective.Deadlinesforpaymentwereroutinelyextendedifafarmerwasunabletopayontime.LittlewonderMr.McCormickbecameextremelypopularwithhiscustomers.Noinventor intheMiddleAgeshadadvertisedhisproductorpromotedhisservicesthewayMcCormickdid.The issue of honesty in advertising and marketing is becoming important in the West. There are

hundredsofpiecesoflegislationthatrequirehonesty,butthehumanheartseemstobefarmoreingeniousthanthelegislators.InMcCormick’sreligiousculture,integrityinmarketingcamefromwithinandwasreinforcedbythesociety.Scienceandtechnologydonotdriveeviloutofourhearts.Infact,technologycanincreaseourcapacityforevil.IdentitytheftandtheabuseofInternetbankingareverygoodcurrentexamples of sin in the human heart. America went on to produce many successful innovators-cum-businessmenbecauseitsculturewasshapedbythegospelthatdealswiththeinnerproblemofsin.BillGatesiscurrentlytherichestmanintheworld.Hissuccessisnotsimplybecauseheisagreat

inventor-businessman.ChinaandIndiahaveequallygiftedindividuals.IfIndiafailedtoproduceaBillGates,thenitisbecauseourmarketshavebeenfilledwithpiratedcopiesofhissoftware.Hecouldn’thavesucceededwithoutarelativelymoralculturebuiltbythegospel.Inourdomesticeconomies,black-marketerstendtomakemoremoneythanhonestbusinessmen.AmericatakesforgrantedwhattheBiblehasdoneforitseconomy.TheconsequencesofchangingWallStreet’smottofrom“InGodWeTrust”to“InGreedWeTrust”areapparenteventoHollywoodscriptwriters.*

THEBIBLE,WOMEN,ANDECONOMY

Cyrus’s mother, Mary Ann McCormick, exercised strong and efficient management of their farm. Shecreatedandmaintainedorderwhileherhusband,Robert,providedinventivenessandleadership.Workingasateam,MaryAnnandRobertwereabletomorethandoublethewealththeyhadinheritedfromtheirparents.Cyrusandhiswife,Nancy,werealsoaneffectiveteam.Nancyprovedanefficientaidtoherhusband’scareer.Cyruswasabletomanageaconstantlygrowingbusiness,traveltheglobetopromotehisreaper, fightendless legalbattles toprotecthispatentrights,andtakeonreligious,political,andpublishingresponsibilitiesbecauseofhiswife’ssupport.Shehada“practicalmind,keenperception,andrarecharm.”Theywerepartners.AfterCyrus’sdeath,Nancytookchargeofthefirm.InherelderyearsshesupportedthePresbyterian

economist-turned-agriculturistSamHigginbottominestablishingtheAllahabadAgriculturalInstitute,nowrecognizedbytheIndiangovernmentasauniversity.Theinstitutepassedontheblessingofagriculturaldevelopmenttosomeofthepoorestpeopleintheworld.(Mystepmotherservedasadoctorinthepublichealthclinicatthisinstitute.)ThePuritanswhomigratedtoAmericaareoftencriticizedfortheirbiblicallyderivedstrictsexual

ethic and rigid family values, including their opposition to divorce. Yet their belief system createdAmerica’s moral and family infrastructure on which to build its national wealth. Educationalopportunitiesandthestatusofwomensubstantiallydeterminethepovertyorwealthofthenation.Anincreasing number of Americans are rejecting the Bible and depriving themselves of the spiritual

resourcesnecessarytosustainmonogamy.Theglamorizationofthesingle-parentfamilyiscondemninganincreasingnumberofAmericanwomenandchildrentopoverty.ApowerfulfactorinMcCormick’ssuccesswasthestablebaseofpoliticalandpersonallibertiesin

America. The next chapter will explore the source of Western freedom—the secular myth and thehistoricaltruth.*InIndiacollegesfunctionunderauniversitycharteredbytheGovernment.DeemedUniversity isastatusofautonomygrantedtohighperforminginstitutesanddepartmentsofvariousuniversitiesinIndia.IdidmyIntermediatestudies(grades11and12)atJamunaChristianCollege,apartofEwingChristianCollege,inHigginbottom’stime.Nowindependent,itisstilllocatedacrosstheriverfromtheAgriculturalInstitute.*ThemodernpressisaproductofthePuritanrevolutioninEngland,andasubstituteforthebiblicalinstitutionoftheprophet.Acenturyago,mostnewspapersinAmericawereChristian.*DuringtheMiddleAgesreligiousindividualswerepaidtositthewholedayandprayforthesoulsoftheirdeceasedrelatives.InHinduandBuddhistcultures,peasantsprovidedforasceticswhodidnothingbesidesmeditate.**Husseypatentedhisreaperin1834butlostthemarketingracetoMcCormick.***Theterm“workaholic”isusedonlyinanegativesensetoday.However,evenourleisure-drivenageacceptsthatnooneexcelsinagivenfieldandbecomesadistinguishedscientist,athlete,inventor,orbusinessmanwithoutworkingharderthanherorhispeers.*Thatisnottoignorethefactthatmany“modern”factoriesbecamedehumanizingprisonsthatgavenoroomforcreativityorpersonalprideincraftsmanship.Fromabiblicalperspective,sinaffectsandcorruptsallhumanendeavors.Mostgovernmentsinmostperiodsofhistoryhavebeenoppressive,yetanarchyisnosolutiontothatproblem.Likewise,thefactorysystemsurvivesbecauseitisredeemable.*FraLucaBartolomeodePacioli,SummadeArithmetica,Geometria,ProportionietProportionalita(Venice1494).*“InGreedWeTrust”appearsonadollarbillattheendofthemovieWallStreet:MoneyNeverSleeps.

ChapterEighteen

LIBERTY

WHYDIDFUNDAMENTALISMPRODUCEFREEDOM?

HollywooddirectorStevenSpielbergteamedupwithGeorgeLucastomakethehitmovie,RaidersoftheLostArk.ThemovieissetduringWorldWarII,andtheNazisarelookingfortheArkofMoses,achestthatmadeancientIsraelinvincible.ThePentagonpanicsandhiresanarchaeologisttolocatetheArkfirst.Hedoesfindit,launchingtheIndianaJonesfranchiseandmisleadingagenerationintotheoccult.Whatwasintheark?WhydidMoses,David,andSolomonplaceitintheveryheartoftheirnation—intheHoliestofHolies?HereweexploretherealsecretoftheWest’slibertyandpower—anditdidcomefromthatArk.In1998,somefriendstookmetoseetheHuguenotmonumentinthevillageofFranschhoekinSouth

Africa.Thispowerfulmarblestatue—ofawomanstandingunderatriunearch,atopaglobeoftheworld—explainsmodernpoliticalfreedommoremeaningfullythandoestheforty-five-thousand-poundStatueofLiberty inNewYork.Across,suspendedfromascepter, isat the topof the three tallwhitemarbleconnectingarches.Thewomanwearsnocrown,forsheisneitheraqueennoragoddess.Sherepresentsordinarypeople.ShewearsabrokenchaininherrighthandandholdsaBibleinherlefthand.FranschhoekValleyisfamedforproducingsomeofthefinestwinesinallofAfrica.ManyFrench

Calvinists (Huguenots/reformers) settled there after fleeing the massacre of thousands of fellowProtestants.1Ageneraledictin1536hadorderedtheirexterminationandthreethousandWaldenses(asectaffiliatedwiththeLutheran“heresy”)werekilledinProvencein1545.2In1562,theVassyslaughterof twelvehundredlaunchedtheWarsofReligion,anduncountedthousandswerebutcheredin theSt.BartholomewMassacrein1572.TheDutchresettledHuguenotrefugeesinSouthAfricatoprovidefoodandwinetoreplenishtheirshipssailingtoAsiaviaCapeTown.Why is this sixteenth-century European woman holding the Bible instead of Plato’s Republic or

Aristotle’sPolitics?ChristendomhadbeenstudyingEuropeanclassicsforcenturiesbeforetheHuguenotsbegan their struggle for freedom. During the fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Renaissance, Europe’sChristianuniversitiestaughtmoreAristotlethantheydidtheBible.Inthe1540s,awomancouldhavebeenburnedatthestakeasahereticforevenholdingaFrenchBibleinherhands.HerchildrencouldhavebeenmurderedbeforehereyesorkidnappedandraisedinCatholicmonasteries.ThewomandoesnotholdaGreekpoliticaltreatisebecause,contrarytowhatmysecularprofessors

taughtme, itwas theBible,notGreekpolitical ideals, thatfired themodernquestforfreedom.Thismonumenthonors thecrossat thepinnaclebecause theBibleempowered theseFrenchProtestants toacceptsuffering,exile,andevenmartyrdomintheirquestforliberty.ThischapterwillexplorehowtheBibleforgedtheculturalingredientsthatfoundedmodernliberties.

Smallcity-statesinGreecehadtrieddemocracyfivecenturiesbeforeChrist.Thesecity-statesbeatthemuchgreaterPersianarmy(490–479BC).Herodotus,anearlyGreekhistorian,crediteddemocracyas

thesourceofthatGreekstrength.ThiscameoopinionofaGreekvictorywasturnedintothetwentieth-century secular myth that pre-Christian Greece was the source of Western democracy. John HermanRandall of New York’s Columbia College and Mortimer Adler and Robert Maynard Hutchins of theUniversityofChicagoforgedthemyth.WillDurant(1885–1981)popularizedthemythinhismultivolumeTheStoryofCivilization.ItwasexposedasmythbyhistorianslikeDavidGress(b.1953),inbookssuchasFromPlatotoNATO.3InrealityGreekdemocraciesneverworkedformorethanafewdecades.Theyalwaysdegeneratedinto

mobrule.PlatoexperiencedGreekdemocracyasthesocialchaosthatmurderedhismentorSocrates.Thereforehecondemnedpuredemocracyastheworstofallpoliticalsystems.Headvocatedrulebya“PhilosopherKing”asthebestformofgovernment.Hisprotégé,Aristotle,trainedAlexandertheGreattobecome Plato’s Philosopher King. Alexander became one of history’s most ambitious but ruthlessconquerors.Alexander’styrannyisthetruelegacyofGreekpoliticalthought.TheRenaissanceversionofPlato’sPhilosopherKingisPolybianRepublicanismpromotedbyNiccoloMachiavelli(1469–1527)inhistreatiseThePrince.Thatcynicalgrabbingandmaintainingofpowerthroughpoliticalmanipulations,coercion, and oppression became the Fascist handbook for Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler andcontinuestoinspirepoliticiansinmany“democracies.”Alexander’sconquestsoftheknownworldspreadtheGreeklanguage,literature,art,andculture.The

HellenizationwassoeffectivethatJewstranslatedtheTorahintoGreek,andJewishfollowersofJesuswrotetheNewTestamentinGreekratherthaninHebrew.GreekartandideasspreadtoIndiaandfarthereast.YetnowheredidHellenizationinspiredemocraticfreedom.TheGreeksknewtheirdemocracieshadfailed.Europe’sReformationanddemocratizationbeganwith thesixteenth-centuryrediscoveryof theBibleandabiblicalunderstandingofgovernance.ItledtoAmerica’sfoundersexplicitlyrejectingGreekdemocracyforaconstitutionalrepublic.Theconstitutionalrepublicrequired thatpeoples’aswellasrulers’powerbeconstrainedbytheruleoflaw.TheBibleisnotabookofabstractphilosophicalideas.MosesledtheHebrewsfromslaveryinEgypt

byamiraculousdeliveranceduringtheExodus.ThatisthecontextforMoseswritingtheearlybooksofthe Bible—to secure that hard-won liberty and ensure that Hebrew despots did not replace Egyptiandespots.TheExodusexperiencehadpowerfulphilosophicalimplicationsthatsettheHebrewsapartfromallotherancientpeoples.ItrevealedthatGodwasfree.Hewasnotlimitedbyeitherthepoliticalormilitary might of Egypt, however oppressive or brutal. Nor was God limited by historical factors,oppressivearmies,orinsurmountablenaturalobstaclessuchastheRedSea.Godwasnotpartofthecosmicmachine.Hewasfreeandwantedhischildrentobefreelikehim.Oppressionandslaverywereevilstoberouted.TheywereevilbecausetheywerecontrarytoallthatGodhadintendedforthehumanbeingsmadeinhisownimage.Therestofbiblicalhistory,fromMosestotheMessiah,isastoryofrepeatedlossandrecoveryof

freedom.Jesusdeclaredthathehadbeensent to“proclaimlibertytothecaptives.”4HoraceGreeley(1811–72),founderandeditoroftheNewYorkTribune,issaidtohaveobserved:“Itisimpossibletoenslave mentally or socially a Bible-reading people.” Not every culture has produced patriots likePatrickHenry,whodeclared,“Givemelibertyorgivemedeath!”Infact,onlyculturesfoundedontheBiblehaveviewedfreedomasavirtueworthdyingfor.BiblicalcultureshighlyvaluefreedomastheessenceofGodandofhisimage—humanity.TheprocessoflosingandrecoveringfreedomrecordedfromGenesisthroughChronicles,gavebirthto

politicalideasthatwererevivedduringthesixteenth-centuryEuropeanReformation.Theyarethemostimportantpillarsofmoderndemocracy.InGenesis,AbrahamwastoldthathewouldbecomeagreatnationbecausehewouldteachGod’swaystohisdescendants.ThegivingoftheTenCommandmentsisrecordedin theBible’ssecondbook—Exodus.Mosesput thatLawintotheArkof theCovenantandplaceditattheveryheartofthenationtomakethepointthatdurablefreedomispossibleonlyunderthe

ruleofGod,theruleoflaw,andtheruleofelders(representatives).ThisfundamentallycontrastswithGreekdemocracies,whichmadecitizens(themajorityormob)theultimaterulersofthestate.The2000presidentialelectionpowerfullyhighlightedthisfoundationaldifferencebetweenthemodern

AmericanrepublicandancientGreekdemocracies.AlGorewonthepopularvote,butGeorgeW.BushbecamepresidentbecausehewonthemajorityofElectoralCollegevotesasrequiredbytheConstitution.Inmanynon-Westerncountries,AlGore’sfollowerswouldhaveslaughteredtheirrivalstograbpoliticalpowerinthenameof“democracy”(majority/mobrule).Butinhisconcessionspeech,Mr.Goresaid:“Overthelibraryofoneofourgreatlawschoolsisenscribedthemotto,‘Notunderman,butunderGodandlaw.’”*Mr. Gore conceded the presidency to Mr. Bush on the ground that the rule of law superseded the

majority.PaulJohnson,Britain’swidelyreadcontemporaryhistorian,arguesthatthisconceptoftheruleoflawwas“themostimportantpoliticaldevelopmentofthesecondmillennium.”5Hemustknowthattheideaoftheruleoflawhadbeenpresentinthepre-Christianworld;forexample,inPersiaandRome.ButneitherthePersiansnortheRomanshadimmutabletranscendentlawonwhichtobasetheirnationallaws.Sopractically,the“ruleoflaw”generallymeanttheruleoftheruler.Themodernprincipleoflawassacred,abovehumanrulers,abovethemajority,camenotfromRomebutfromtheBible.TheExodusandtheTenCommandmentswerenotMoses’ideas.TheywereGod’sactsandwords,

seen,heard,andaffirmedbythewholecommunity.TheJewsbelievedthatGodhimselfwrotetheTenCommandmentsontwotabletsofstoneonMountSinai.God’swordshadgreaterauthoritythanhumanconstitutions.AsIsrael’sliberator,Godassertedhisrightasultimateruler:“IamtheLORDyourGodwhobroughtyououtofthelandofEgypt,outofthehouseofslavery.”6Mr.AlGorealludedtothefactthatthemodernWesternideaoftheruleoflawflowedfromtheideathatGodisourultimateruler.HuguenotsunderstoodthattheabsolutesovereigntyofGodoverridesthesovereigntyofsinfulmen,andthisliberatesthecommonpeople.ThustheliberatedwomanoftheHuguenotmonumentstandsbeneathatriplearchrepresentinghertriuneGod.ThecovenantoftheTenCommandmentsfoundedthemodernprincipleofconstitutionalism,orruleof

law,byaperpetualwrittenandbindinglaw.Britain’ssubmissiontotheruleoflawwasinstitutionalizedwith theMagnaCarta (1215), foundedoncommonlaw, tracing to thecodeofAlfred theGreat.TheMosaiccodewasthefoundationforsuchlegalcodesintheWest.One-thirdofAlfred’s“Dooms”(AD893)quotedbiblicallawwhilecollatingthelawsofthreeChristiankingdoms.7Ultimately,theWordofGodwasthebasisforlawandgovernment.AgoodillustrationisPaulRobert’spaintingJusticeLiftstheNations,whichhangsintheSupremeCourtofSwitzerland.Inthispainting,thelitigantsstandbeforethejudges.Howwillthejudgesdecide?LadyJusticepointsherswordtoanopenbookonwhichiswritten,“TheLawofGod.”Does the American notion of “one nation under God” or “in God we trust” imply theocracy or

democracy?ThebiblicaltraditionrediscoveredduringtheReformationviewedtheocracyanddemocracyasnecessarycomplements:humanruleflowedfromGod’srule.TheBibledepictsGodastheultimateruler.ThefirsttwochaptersofGenesis,however,recordthatGodcreatedus—maleandfemale—torulehisearth.HumanbeingshavetherighttoruleonthisplanetbecauseGodgaveusthatright.TheLordJesusclaimedhehadcometobringGod’skingdomtothisearth.Hismissionwastogivethekingdomnottoaristocrats,buttothepoor,meek,andtherighteous.8TheHuguenots’understandingoftheBible’spoliticalphilosophyturnedanancientandmedievalidea

onitshead.Platohadnorespectforthe“voiceofthepeople.”InAD798,theEnglishscholarAlcuinexpressedthesamewisdomtoEmperorCharlemagne:“AndthosepeopleshouldnotbelistenedtowhokeepsayingthevoiceofthepeopleisthevoiceofGod,sincetheriotousnessofthecrowdisalwaysveryclosetomadness.”*OncetheReformationtaughtthoseriotousmobstobecomethepeopleofGod’s

Word,itbecamepossibleforChristiannations,suchasScotland,toviewthe“voiceofthepeople”asthe“voiceofGod.”Nationswerenotboundtoobeywickedcommandsofpopesandkingsclaimingtobethe“voiceofGod.”SinceGodhadgivenhisWord, thepeoplecouldreadandknowGod’swill.Whenpopes,churchcouncils,andtheologiansdisagreed,thepeoplehadaresponsibilitytostudyGod’sWordanddeterminewhatwasGod’svoice.OntheauthorityofGod’sWord,thevoiceofthepeoplecouldrejectthevoiceofkingsorpopeswhenitviolatedGod’sprinciples.IslamalsohadthenotionoftheultimateauthorityofGodandhisword.Why,then,didIslamfailto

produce liberty? A key factor is that Islam denied God the power and love to come to this earth toestablishhiskingdom.IfGoddoesnotcometoestablishhisrule,thenwehavenooptionbuttoberuledexclusively by sinful men. This chapter’s emphasis on the Bible’s role in creating liberty does notunderminetheBible’semphasisonChrist’sincarnationasthesourceofliberty.Jesusclaimedthat“iftheSonsetsyoufree,youwillbefreeindeed.”9Islamhasneverbeenabletofosterareformationthatcouldundermine human totalitarianism, because it rejects the very notion of God coming to establish hiskingdom.ItalsofailstoempowerthepeoplebyitsrefusaltotranslatetheQur’anintothelanguagesofthepeople.

THERULEOFELDERS

Moses’brother,Aaron,washisright-handman.Hisfamilywasaccordedpermanentpriesthood.Moses’tribe, the Levites, supported him more fervently than the other eleven tribes did. The Levites wereappointedtocareforthetabernacleandteachthepeopleGod’slaws.TheothereleventribesresentedthisandquestionedMoses’andAaron’sleadership.Inmostancientcultures,rulerswouldhavecrushedanyopposition.Triballeadership,whenitwasnot

hereditary,usuallyrestedeitheronterrororondeceptionbythepriesthood.ButMoseswasunusual.HehadneverwantedtogotoEgyptandbecometheirdeliverer.HewentonlybecauseGodsenthim.Heeven complained to God, “Why should I have to bear the responsibility of leading these rebelliouspeople?”GodtoldMosestobringseventyeldersoftheIsraelitestothetabernacle,tothesacredtentwherepeoplewenttomeetwithGod.10Thatformalizedtherulebyelders.Twooftheeldersrefusedtocometomakethepointthattheywere

undernoobligationtoobeyMoses.ContrasttheseelderswiththewisemenandcounselorsofmostofmedievalEurope—whoheldofficeatthepleasureofthekingandcouldberemovedbyhimatanytime.Initially,assembliesandparliamentsmetwhenkingscalledthemforconsultation.Incontrast,theHebreweldersdidnotowetheirpositiontoMoses.TheywererespectedcommunityleaderslongbeforeMoseswentbacktoEgypt.HehadtogaintheirconfidencebeforegoingtoPharaoh.11InNumbers11,theBiblerecordsthatGodanointedtheseseventyelders,whorepresentedthepeople,

tohelpMosesleadthenation.Joshua,Moses’youngassistant,wantedtoexcludefromleadershipthetworebelswhohaddefiedMoses.Mosesinsistedthatalltheelders,includingthetwowhodefiedhim,weretobeacceptedasleadersbecausetheyrepresentedthepeople,andGodhadendorsedtheirleadership.ThisbiblicalgovernmentalprincipleoftheruleofeldersbecamefoundationaltomodernconstitutionalrepublicsastherulebyelectedrepresentativesandnotbyhereditaryaristocratsasinRome.TheearlychurchadoptedthisOldTestamentapproachtotheleadershipofelders.Itwasverydifferent

fromthedirectandvulnerabledemocracyinGreece.Itwasalsoradicallydifferentfromthesupremeauthorityassumedbymedievalkings,popes,emperors,andlords.

DIVISIONOFPOWERS

Biblical history contributed another critical principle of just governance: the division of powers and

checksandbalances.ByappointingSaulasking,theIsraelitesestablishedpoliticalauthorityindependentofreligiousauthority,byregulationscodifiedbyMoses.12Samuelremainedtheprophetwhokeptacheckonanyabuseofpoliticalpower.WecanbetterappreciatetheimportanceofthisbiblicalprincipleofgovernmentbyconsideringwhathappenedinRome.UntilthetimeofAugustus(63BC–AD14),Romewasarepublicwithnoking.Asenateofaristocratsgovernedtherepublic,ensuringthatnoneofthembecame dominant. But power struggles and civil wars eroded the republican system. Then Augustuseradicated those who had killed his uncle, Julius Caesar. By doing so, he became a dictator, subtlymanipulatingpublicopinion.Romeknewnoseparationbetweenchurchandstate.Jesus’dictumthatwhatbelongstoGodshouldnot

begiventoCaesercameasafundamentalconstrainttoRomantotalitarianism.Jesus’wordsremindedhislisteners that government had limited, not absolute, power. Caesar could not demand worship thatbelonged toGod.RomerejectedChrist’schallenge to itsclaimto totalitarianpower. It retaliatedbypersecutingChristians.Nero(AD15–AD68)begantolighthisgardenpathswithChristiansboundtostakesandsetafire.

Christians died by the thousands under Rome’s tyranny, which continued through ten emperors untilDiocletian’sviciouspersecution250yearslater.ButtheChurchresisteditspaganenemies.TheChurchalsoresistedChristiankingswhousurpedtheirstatusasheadsofstateandclaimedtherighttoruleoverthe Church. While Constantine I tolerated Christianity in AD 311, Theodosius I (379–395) madeChristianitytheonlylegalreligioninRome.ThisraisedthebishopofRometoanunusuallypowerfulposition.Romenowhadtwoindependentcentersofpower—religiousandsecular(popeandemperor).AstheprophetSamuelconfrontedKingSaul,NathanconfrontedKingDavid,andElijahconfrontedKingAhab,somepopesandbishopscontinuedtoconfrontkingstopreserveunalienablerightsandrestoretheruleoflaw.Forexample,whenfansriotedandkilledanofficerandhisaidesforarrestingafamedcharioteer,

Emperor Theodosius had his troops massacre more than seven thousand innocent spectators at thecoliseum.ThearchbishopofMilanforcedTheodosiustoundergopenanceforeightmonths.ThebishopwasfollowingtheprophetNathan,whoconfrontedKingDavidconcerninghisadulterywithBathshebaand the murder of her husband. Theodosius had to dress as a pauper and beg forgiveness from themultitudesinfrontofthecathedralinMilan.Thishumiliationconfirmedtheimpactofbiblicalgovernanceontheemergingmodernprincipleofchecksandbalances.PopeGregoryVII(ca.1015–85)affirmedtheselimitsonthegovernment’spower.TheHolyRoman

emperor Henry IV (1050–1106) insisted that, as God’s divinely appointed ruler, he had the right toappointbishops.PopeGregoryrespondedbyexcommunicatinghim.That“mighty”rulerwasforcedtohumblehimselfinthesnowyCanossapassoftheItalianAlps.Afterthreedays,EmperorHenryIVwasfinally forgiven by Pope Gregory VII and readmitted to the Church. Gregory drew on arguments bytheologianManegoldofLautenbachthataking’sofficewasbyconsentfordefinitegovernmentpurpose,basedonacontract(pactum)withthepeople.Ifthekingbreaksthispactum,however,thenthepeoplearesetfreefromthatsubjugation.13The importance of the role of the Church or prophet in constraining secular abuses of power is

epitomizedbyArchbishopStephenLangtonmediatingbetweentheEnglishkingJohnIandhisbarons.ToredressKingJohn’spillagingoftheChurchanditspeople,ArchbishopLangtonputthebaronsunderoathtorestoretheruleoflaw.DrawingonManegoldandtheCharterofLiberties(1000)ofKingHenryI,LangtondraftedtheMagnaCartain1215,preserving“TheChurchshallbefree.”Thischartercodifiedlimitationsonthepowersoftheking.Hecouldnotimposearbitrarytaxesbutwasrequiredtohavetheconsentofthecommoncouncilofthekingdom—whichbecameParliamentandthence,CongressintheUSA.Norcouldthekingarrestorpunishany“freeman”merelyonrumorsorsuspicion.Thiscodificationof

Englishcivillibertiessecuredthat“[n]ofreemanshallbetakenorimprisonedordisseised*oroutlawedorexiledorinanywayruined,norwillwegoorsendagainsthim,exceptbythelawfuljudgement[sic]ofhispeersorbythelawoftheland.”14Inotherwords,neitherlife,liberty,norpropertycouldbetakenfromanyonewithoutjudgmentbytheperson’speersandthenonlybydueprocessofthelawoftheland.Langtonestablishedthisprincipleofsupremacyoflawovertheauthorityofrulersbyrequiringimmediateredressofanybreach,evenbytheking,andauthorizingarmedoppositionbythebaronsifherefused.OnJune15,1215,thebaronsthenboundKingJohnbyoathsbeforeGodandtheassembledbishopstoupholdtheMagnaCartainperpetuity.TheregularizationofEngland’sjudicialsystembeganwiththeMagnaCarta.Withinthreedecades,one

ofEngland’smostfamousandgodlyjudges,HenrydeBracton,begantosystematizeEnglishcommonlaw.Bythemid-thirteenthcentury,hehadexplicitlyderivedfromtheBibletheprincipleofruleofjusticerather than force. By 1258, England’s House of Commons was formed. The “Model Parliament” ofEdward I in 1295 consisted of bishops and abbots, peers,* two knights from each shire, and tworepresentativesfromeachtown.Justgovernmentwastheideal.Secularandsacredauthoritiesoftenexceededtheirpositions,however,

assuming absolute power in their own sphere. Kings tolerated no political dissent, and the churchtoleratednoreligiousdissent.Thenallhellbrokeloosewhenchurchandstatejoinedhandstodoevil.One of the most dramatic expressions of religio-political corruption took place at the height of thesixteenth-centuryRenaissanceinParis,thecityofromance,greatart,andculture.Twenty-two-year-oldKingCharlesIXandhismother,CatherinedeMedici** bankrupted their country through governmentexcesses.Inacountryofonestatereligion,Catholicism,Huguenotsprayedattheirpersonalperil.Anyshowof

Protestant affiliation in public was punishable by the severest penalties. In Paris, public hangings ofHuguenotswerefrequent.Womenandchildrenwerenotspared.AstensionsbecameunbearableinAugust1572,CatherinebroughtinmercenarytroopsfromSwitzerland.Atthreeinthemorning,August24,SaintBartholomew’sDay,thegatesofPariswerelockedandthe

churchbellsbegantoring.Officersoftheking’smilitiawereorderedtokilleverylastHuguenot.Theslaughterbegan.WithinafewhoursCatherinetriedtocallitoff,butitwastoolate.Themassacrewasspreading,notjustinParisbutallacrossFrance.Thecountryexplodedwithreligiousire.Nohouseholdwas immunefromviolentreprisalsandreligioushatred.Historiansareunsureas to theextentof thecarnage.Estimatesrangefromfivethousandtothirtythousand.Howcouldanychurchjoinhandswithadementedmonarchytosanctionsuchslaughter?Thepope

allowed the people to die because they defied his authority. The Huguenots held the Bible as theirauthoritybecausetheybelievedGod’sWordsupersededtheauthorityofboththekingandthepope.Inanagewhenkings,judges,andbishopsindulgedunabashedlyincorruption,Biblebelieversdemandedthatpolitical,civic,andreligiousauthoritiesconformtoGod’sstandardofrighteousness.Couldthebasicfreedomswe’vebeentrackinghavecomeaboutinanycase,regardlessoftheBible,

through the sheer power and inevitability of progress, the redemption of wounds, the memory ofavoidablecatastrophes,andthegeneralgrowthofknowledge?Thisisdifficulttoimagine.Peoplewithstrongconvictionsleadreformmovements.Skepticsare,bydefinition,unsureintheirbeliefs.Alackofconvictiondoesnotinspirepeopletodiefortheirbeliefsandvalues.Fundamentalreformsrequirethefaithofardentbelievers,socertainoftheirconvictionsthattheywouldtakeuptheircrossesandgotothestakeforthem.Fanaticismcan,ofcourse,leadtobigotry—unlessoneisfollowingaGodwhosacrificeshimselftoserveothersandcommandsyoutoloveyourneighborasyourself.ConvictionthatGodisonyoursidemakesyouapowerfulperson.

THETRILOGYOFFREEDOM

TheHuguenots’traumaticexperienceonSaintBartholomew’sDaygavebirthtothreebooksthattriggereda veritable revolution from the medieval form of government to the modern form of constitutionalgovernment.FrançoisHotman,TheodoreBeza,andpossiblyPhilippeduPlessis-Mornaywrotethethreetreatises.Thetransitionunleashedbythesewritingsensuredthat theruleof lawandtherightsof thepeopletookprecedenceoverthetyrannyofmonarchsandpopes.Theprimacyofthelawandtheauthorityofthepeoplewereexpressedinconcreteinstitutionssuchasparliamentsandcourtsthatwerenolongersubjecttothewhimsofkings.Thesethreebooks,collectivelyreferredtoasthe“TrilogyofFreedom,”demonstratetheroletheBibleplayedingivingbirthtomodernliberties.FrançoisHotman(1524–90),aprofessoroflaw,wasoneofthemostdistinguishedjuristsofhisday.

He narrowly escaped death on St. Bartholomew’s Day. His book, Francogallia, became one of theearliestsourcesfortherejectionofpoliticalabsolutism.Hotmanarguedthatakingisnothingmorethanamagistrateforlife.Thepeoplecreatekingships.Kingsareresponsibletothepeoplefortheirconductwhileinofficeandconstantlysubjecttoremovalbythepeopleforviolationofthedutiesoftheiroffice.Hotman’simportantargumentwasthat“royalmajesty,”thesupremeadministrationofthegovernment,wasnotaqualityinherentinaking’sperson.Itwasanattributethatbelongedtothe“ThreeEstates”—theking,thehighcounselors,andthepeoplerepresentedbytheirelders—assembledasawhole,inwhichthekingwasbutthepresidingofficer.TheGeneralAssemblyoftheEstates,inHotman’sscheme,wasnotmerelyaconsultativebodywhose

consentwasrequiredbythekingonexceptionaloccasions.Hotmanconsideredtheassemblytobethevery center of the government—as in the British parliament or the United States Congress. Hotmanpropoundedtheprincipleoftheruleoflaw.Thewaytoestablishtheruleoflaw,Hotmansaid,wastorelyontheBiblealone,insteadofRomanandbiblicallaws,especiallynowthattheBiblehadbecomeavailableandhadpresentedaclearerunderstandingofGod’smoralrequirements.TheologianTheodoreBeza’sbookTheRightofMagistrateswaspublishedin1573,oneyearafter

Hotman’sbookandinconsultationwithhim.ItwasoneoftheoriginalsourcesoftheideaofinviolablehumanrightsthatexpresseditselftwohundredyearslaterintheAmericanBillofRights.PriortoBeza,thegeneralintellectualconsensusinEurope—arguedbyeminentthinkerssuchasSt.ThomasAquinas—wasthatkingscouldonlyberemovedbythepeopleabovethem;thatis,eitherbytheemperororbythepope. Beza, in contrast, provided a biblical basis for investing that political authority in the lowerofficials—themagistrates.Bezaarguedthatthemagistratesorcivicleaderswereservantsnotofthekingbutofthekingdom.Theirprimarydutywasnottoobeythekingbuttodefendthekingdom.TheAmericanideathatapresidentcanbeimpeachedandremovedbytheCongresscamefromBeza’sbook.BezabuiltonHotman’sdictumthat“apeoplecanexistwithoutaking…whereasakingwithouta

peoplecannotevenbeimagined.”15InGod’sview,peoplecomefirst.Godgavekingsandmagistratestheirofficesonsomedefiniteconditions,suchas,toservethepeople.Whenakingissuesanunjustorder,forexample,toarrestorkillaninnocentcitizen,thenthemagistrateshavetherightanddutytodisobeythekinginordertoobeyGodanddefendhispeople.Thekingislikeavassaltohiskingdomandforfeitshisofficeifheviolatesthefaith.Furthermore,followingtheCouncilsofBaselandConstance,BezaarguedthattheChurchcouncilhadarighttodeposeapope,sinceChrist,notthepope,wastherealheadoftheChurch.Hence,thenotionoftheinfallibilityofpopeswaschallengedbythisbreakthroughinProtestantethicalthinking.While secular Western scholarship ignores Beza’s foundational role in shaping Western political

thought,hisprincipleofanindependentjudiciaryhasbecometheheritageofeverypersonintheWest.AsanAsian,IbegantoappreciateitsseminalvirtuewhenIexperiencedtheopposite.Pettypoliticianswereabletoaskcorruptmagistratestothrowmeinjailontrumped-upcharges.Ourprimeminister,Mrs.IndiraGandhi,duringherbriefstintwithauthoritarianismfrom1975to1977,talkedofIndia’sneedtohavea“committedjudiciary”—onethatwouldenforcetheordersofrulers,nottheruleoflaw.Thankfully,her

experimentdidnotbcometheestablishedpracticeinIndia,butthatisthewaymostoftheworldlives.ManynationshaveacceptedtheUnitedNations’notionof“humanrights”withoutTheodoreBeza’s

theologyoftheRightsofMagistrates.Nevertheless,“unalienablehumanrights”makenosensewithoutthebiblicalprincipleoftheuniqueworthgrantedtoallindividualsbytheirCreator.Also,humanrightsbecomepowerless idealswithoutmagistratesexercisingtheirright toenforcethemover theabuseofauthoritybyrulers.VindiciaeContraTyrannos (Defense of Liberty Against Tyrants) became the most popular of the

TrilogyofFreedombecauseofitsstraightforwardandaction-orientedstyle.Thereissomedisputeabouttheauthorshipofthebookbecauseitwaspublishedpseudonymously.ManyscholarsthinkthatPhilippeduPlessis-Mornaywroteit,perhapswiththehelpofhisolderfriend,HubertLanguet.Following Beza, Mornay drew important lessons from the coronation of King Joash in the Old

Testament.Duringthecoronation,atwofoldcovenantwasmadeundertheguidanceofthegodlyhighpriest,Jehoiada.OnecovenantwasbetweenGodandtheking—thekingwouldfaithfullyserveGod—whiletheotherwasbetweenthekingandthepeople.Mornaydemonstratedfromthisthatpeoplehadanobligationtoobeytheirkings,whointurnwereobligedtoobeyGod.WhenkingsdisobeyedGod’slawintheBibleandbecameunjustandoppressive,thepeoplehadaresponsibilitytorestrain,andifnecessary,todeposethem.TheAmericanideathattherulershouldnotbeakingbutapresidentcamefromthisbook.Apresidentissimplythefirstamongequals.Heorshepresidesinanassemblyofequals.Collectively,theyhavemorepowerthanhehas.

THEHUGUENOTS’POLITICALINFLUENCE

The St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre in 1572 turned Scotland decisively against the old oppressivereligio-politicalsystemthathadexistedforcenturies.LikeBeza,JohnKnox,Scotland’smostpopularreformer, had studied under Calvin in Geneva. Many of the French reformers were Knox’s personalfriends.KnoxandtheScottishreformershadalreadywonthereligiousreformsby1560.Thepoliticalbattles,whichwere,infact,acivilwarbetweentheProtestantsandCatholics,continueduntil1572.TheHoly Roman Empire had a vested interest in keeping the old religious structure intact. The RomanChurch’shierarchicalorganizationwasareplica,notof theNewTestamentchurchbutof theRomanEmpire. It gave absolute power to kings and popes over the people. But the massacre in France sorepulsedtheScotsthatin1573theygaveadecisivemilitaryvictorytothereformers.Queen Mary’s forces were defeated, and the first fully blossomed modern democracy—already

establishedintheScottishchurch—wasestablishedinthestate.Inaradicaloverturningofthenotionofthedivinerightsofkingsorpopes,itaffirmedthesupremacyofthe“voiceofthepeople”rootedintheWordofGod.Peoplecouldhear,understand,andarticulateGod’svoicebecausetheynowhadGod’sWordintheirhands,intheirownlanguage.TheBiblethustransformedmedievaltheocracyintomoderndemocracyinamannerthatservedthepeople,servedjustice,andwaseminentlypractical.TheHuguenots’“TrilogyofFreedom”alsohadanimmediateimpactinHolland.WilliamIofOrange

had been fighting for Dutch independence from Spain. The French trilogy provided theologicaljustificationforhisstruggle.WilliambecameapersonalfriendofMornayandsucceededinestablishingUtrechtasafreenucleusforlaterDutchliberation.EventuallyMornay’sworkinfluencedtheentireworldthroughtheDutchjurist,humanist,andstatesmanHugoGrotius(1583–1645)andtheSwissphilosopher,diplomat,andlegalexpertEmmerichdeVattel(1714–67).16Theirlegalwritingslaidthefoundationformoderninternationallaw.In 1688 England’s king James II jailed seven bishops, including Archbishop William Sancroft, on

chargesofrebellionbyseditiouslibelfortheirrefusaltoreadhisSecondDeclarationofIndulgence.Thejuryacquittedthem,nullifyingthisunjustedict.17Sixmonthslaterthisledtothe“GloriousRevolution”

whereJamesIIwasreplacedbyWilliamofOrangeandMary(James’sheir).Parliamentthencodifiedthe(English)BillofRights (1689),explicitlypreserving theMagnaCarta’s right topetition thekingforredressofgrievances,asrestoredbythesevenbishops.18After the Bible, Vindiciae Contra Tyrannos had the greatest impact in fueling the American

Revolution.19Itmovedthepulpitsthatmovedthepewstoresisttyranny.SecularscholarshipignoresthetrilogyprimarilybecauseReformedandHuguenotwritersderivedandjustifiedeveryargumentfromtheBible.YetthefactremainsthatthebiblicalideasproclaimedbyReformedandHuguenotwritersspreadrapidly to Switzerland, Holland, Scotland, England, and America. From these countries, the torch oflibertywastakentotherestoftheworld.

THEBIBLEANDDEMOCRACYININDIA

Inearlierbooks,suchasIndia:TheGrandExperiment,IdiscussedmysurprisingdiscoverythatIndia’sfreedom,too,wasafruitofthegospel.BeforeleavingforIndiaasamissionary,WilliamCarey,theBibletranslatorparexcellence,defendedhiscallformissionin1792withthesewords:

Afterall,theuncivilizedstateoftheheathen,insteadofaffordinganobjectionagainstpreachingtheGospeltothem,oughttofurnishanargumentforit.Canweasmen,orasChristianshearthatagreatpartofourfellowcreatures,whosesoulsareasimmortalasours…arewithouttheGospel,withoutgovernment,withoutlaws,withoutarts,andsciences,andnotexertourselvestointroduceamongstthemthesentimentsofmen,andofChristians?WouldnotthespreadoftheGospelbethemosteffectualmeansoftheircivilization?Wouldnotthatmakethemusefulmembersofsociety?20

TheevangelicalmovementturnedCarey’svisionintotheBritishmissioninIndia.Asnotedinanearlierchapter,LordMacaulaysummedupthatmissioninhisspeechtoBritishParliamentin1833:

ItmaybethatthepublicmindofIndiamayexpandunderoursystemtillithasoutgrownthatsystem;thatbygoodgovernmentwemayeducateoursubjectsintoacapacityforbettergovernment;thathavingbecomeinstructedinEuropeanknowledge,theymay,insomefutureagedemandEuropeaninstitutions(ofliberty).21

Critics,suchasArunShourie,condemnMacaulayforbringingbiblicalideasandinstitutionstosubvertoppressiveIndiancultureandfreetheIndianmind.WithouttheBible’spoliticalideas,however,Muslimemperors,Hindumilitia,orEuropeanmerchantswouldstillberulingIndia.

MODERNPOLITICALTHOUGHT

OneofthemostimportantexponentsofabiblicalpoliticaltheorycameafewdecadesafterHuguenotrefugeesfledtheFrenchinfernoofthe1570s.AScottishpastorandtheologiannamedSamuelRutherford(1600?–1661)summarizedtheteachingsofHotman,Beza,andMornayinhisbookLex,Rex—TheLawandthePrince.TheverytitleofRutherford’sbookset it inoppositiontoMachiavelli’sThePrince.Rutherford’stitlecanbetranslatedasTheLaw[Is]Kingbecauseitdefinedmoderndemocracyastheruleoflaw,ratherthanastheruleofmonarchsormajorities.JohnMiltonandJamesHaringtonwereotherbiblicalPuritanpoliticaltheoristswho,followingthe

Huguenots, rejected the divine right of kings. Milton introduced the modern ideas of tolerance andfreedomofexpression.Theseideasborepracticalfruitinhisowndayandmorefullyafter1688—theveryyearinwhichtheHuguenotscametoSouthAfricafromHolland.ThatwasalsotheyearinwhichWilliamIIIofOrangesailedfromHollandtoEnglandtoleadthe“GloriousRevolution.”HeputthoseReformedidealsintopracticebyinstitutionalizingtherightsofParliament.

JohnLocke(1632–1704),whoreturnedfromHollandtoEnglandwithWilliamIIIthatyear,becameoneofthemostimportantphilosophersandpoliticaltheoristsinthedecadesthatfollowed.LockewasthesonofaPuritanpastorandstudiedinWestminsterAbbeywhenRutherfordwastherewritingLex,Rex.Lockearticulatedthebiblicalpoliticalvisionofhispredecessorssystematicallyin1690,whenhewrotethefollowing:

Iwillnotdisputenowwhetherprincesareexemptfromthelawsoftheircountry,butofthisIamsure,theyowesubjectiontothelawsofGodandNature.Nobody,nopowercanexemptthemfromtheobligationsofthateternallaw.Thosearesogreatandsostronginthecaseofpromises, thatOmnipotencyitselfcanbetiedbythem.[IntheBible]Grants,promises,andoaths,arebondsthatholdtheAlmighty,whateversomeflattererssaytoprincesoftheworld,who,alltogether,withalltheirpeoplejoinedtothem,are,incomparisonofthegreatGod,butasadropofthebucket,oradustonthebalance—inconsiderable,nothing!22

Locke’spoliticalphilosophywononlybecausehisreadersknewthathewasbiblicalandwise.Quantitatively, the Bible was most frequently quoted by America’s Founding Fathers, followed by

Montesquieu,Blackstone,andLocke.23ThisbriefchaptercannotexaminetheBible’sinfluenceoneverypoliticaltheoristoronthedevelopmentofimportantpillarsofliberty,suchasfreedomofconscience,freedomofspeech,thepressastheprophet,checksandbalances,andautonomyofinstitutionssuchasfamily and university in their own spheres. Political philosophy gleaned from the Bible was indeedtransmittedtoAmericaeffectivelyviaJohnLocke’swritings.Secularhistoriansperverthistory,however,whentheyfailtoconfessthatLockewasfollowedbecausehewaschannelingabiblicalphilosophyofgovernance.NoIndianthinkerfoundsimilarpoliticalideasinanyofourscripturesandepics.FrenchProtestantideasreformedthepoliticallifeofneighboringcountries,butFrancepaidheavilyfor

suppressing the Reformation. The corruption of church and state turned its keenest thinkers againstreligion.Forexample,RousseaureducedMornay’stwofoldGod-kingandking-peoplecovenanttoone“social contract” between the king and people. He shared the Huguenots’ love of liberty but definedfreedomasthepeople’srighttodeposekingsandnobleswhentheybecamecorruptandoppressive.HeexcludedGod.HisteachingshelpedspawntheFrenchRevolution,butwithoutthemobssubmittingtoGod’sWord,therevolutionendedindisaster.TheBastilleperhapssymbolizestheworstofthatrevolution,whichbackfiredinthenameofNapoleon

Bonaparte,adictator.Thehigh-mindedrhetoricoftheFrenchEnlightenmentprovedpowerlesstocontroltheevilinthehumanheart.WithouttheBible,democracybecamewhatPlatohadcondemnedastheworstofallpoliticalsystems.NapoleonwasagrotesquethrowbacktotheauthoritarianRomanEmpireatatimewhentherestofEurope—indeed,muchoftheworld—waslookingtowardanewparadigm.America,notFrance,becamethebeaconofliberty,preciselybecauseitallowedtheBibletoshapeitsculturalethos.24BritishstatesmanEdmundBurkewasonecontemporarywhocarefullystudiedtheFrenchfailure.In“A

LettertoaMemberoftheNationalAssembly”(1791)Burkewrote:

Whatislibertywithoutvirtue?Itisthegreatestofallpossibleevils…itismadnesswithoutrestraint.Menarequalifiedforcivillibertyinexactproportiontotheirdispositiontoputmoralchainsupontheirownappetite…Societycannotexist,unlessacontrollingpoweruponwillandappetitebeplacedsomewhere;andlessofitthereiswithin,themoretheremustbewithout.25

RobertC.Winthrop,Speakerof theU.S.HouseofRepresentatives(1847–1849)and leaderof the

BibleSociety,articulatedthisindispensableprincipleofliberty:

Allsocietiesofmenmustbegovernedinsomewayorother.ThelesstheymayhaveofstringentStateGovernment,themoretheymusthaveofindividualself-government.Thelesstheyrelyonpubliclaworphysicalforce,themoretheymustrelyonprivatemoralrestraint.Men,inaword,mustnecessarilybecontrolled,eitherbyapowerwithinthem,orbyapowerwithoutthem;eitherbythewordofGod,orbythestrongarmofman;eitherbytheBibleorbythebayonet.26

SLAVERYINSOUTHAFRICA

WhentheHuguenotsfirstcametoSouthAfrica,theirspiritualleader,PierreSimond,proposedteachingagricultureandliteracytothelocalpeoplecalledtheHottentots.Hewantedtoimparttheblessingsofcivilizationtoapeoplewhodidnotknoweventheelementaryprinciplesofagriculture.Unfortunately,succeedinggenerationsofHuguenotsadoptedtheDutchcolonialpracticeofusingslavelaborintheirhomesandfarms.SlaverywasabolishedinSouthAfricain1833,aftertheBritishevangelicalsledbyWilliam Wilberforce returned to the Bible. In the twentieth century, secular humanists introducedapartheid in South Africa. Sadly, many white Christians justified this form of social engineering.Thankfully,otherChristianswhoremainedfaithfultotheBiblehelpeddefeatthatevil.DidtheslaveryandapartheidpracticedbymanywhiteChristiansturnthenativeblacksagainstthe

Bible?IproposedthatquestiontoWynomaMichaels,thenaPhDstudentattheUniversityofStellanboschandthefirstblackwomantobecomethestudentpresidentofthatuniversity.IwasnotsurprisedwhensherepliedthatstudyingandteachingtheBiblewasherfirstlove.ShereportedwhatIhadsuspected—moreblacksstudytheBiblethandothewhites.Why?Because,shesaid,althoughtheBiblewasabused,nothingelsegaveherpeopleagreatersense

oftheirownworthandmeaningthantheGoodBook.Thiswasonebooktheslave-ownerandtheslavesharedincommon.Asthemastersatdowntoreaditaloudtohisslaves,theybothknewtheystoodunderitsauthorityasequals.TheblacksinSouthAfricahadnothingelsethroughwhichtheycouldknowthattheywereprecioustoGod.Wynomasaidthatagreatnumberofherpeopletookthetroubletobecomeliterateforonereasonalone—theywantedtoreadtheBible.Theydidnotlearntoreadinordertofindjobs.Shereferredtoanewspaperstorypublishedthatveryweekaboutasixty-five-year-oldwomanwhohadjoinedanadultliteracyclassbecauseshewantedtoreadtheBible.27TodaytheBibleisthechieffactorinopeningoftheAfricanmind,justasitwasthekeytoopeningthe

Westernmind.*ThestatementcomesfromHenrydeBracton,whohelpedcodifyBritishCommonLawandisengravedatHarvardLawSchool.*Necaudiendiquisolentdicere,Voxpopuli,voxDei,quumtumultuositasvulgisemperinsaniaeproximasit.*Todisseisesomeonemeanttostripthatpersonofalawfullyheldestate.*Membersofthenobility.**Machiavellidedicatedhisbook,ThePrince,toCatherine’sfather.

PartVII

GLOBALIZINGMODERNITY

EvangelicalProtestantismbringsaboutaculturalrevolutioninitsnewterritories…Itbringsaboutradicalchangesintherelationsbetweenmenandwomen,intheupbringingandeducationofchildren,intheattitudestowardtraditionalhierarchies.Mostimportantly,it

inculcatespreciselythat“Protestantethic”thatMaxWeberanalyzedasanimportantingredientinthegenesisofmoderncapitalism—adisciplined,frugal,andrationallyorientedapproachtowork.Thusdespiteitsindigenization…[biblicalfaith]isthecarrierofapluralisticand

modernizingculturewhoseoriginallocationisintheNorthAtlanticsocieties.—PETERBERGER

ChapterNineteen

MISSION

CANSTONEAGETRIBESHELPGLOBALIZATION?

MyfriendRodoesnotfitconventionalcategories.Heisneitherrightnorleft.Hewouldneitherbombatribeofterroristsnorrespectanycultureinitsentirety.Ro,shortforDr.RochungaPudaite(b.1927),believesintransformingnegativeaspectsofeveryculture.Hebelievesthatallculturesreflecthumangoodnessaswellasbaseness.Hecomesfromatribeofheadhunters—theHmarsofnortheastIndia.Andhehasplayedacriticalroleinthetransformationofhispeople.Ro’sMongolianancestorsmigratedfromcentralChinatothejunglesbetweenMyanmar(Burma)and

India.TheBritishfoundthemferociouswarriors.In1870,theHmarstookfivehundredBritishheadsduringasingleraidonaremoteteaplantation.GeneralFrederickRoberts,theBritishcommander,wentafterthemintwocolumns.*Hekilledafew,butmostofthemdisappearedintothedenseforest.TheBritishhadlearnednottofollow.Fivehundredheads,thegeneralfelt,wasmorethanenoughlossforoneday.TheBritisheventuallytaughttheHmarsnottomesswiththeirIndianRaj(Empire).Yettheynever

forgotthattheHmarsweredreadful—atribeofsavageswhodecoratedtheirhutswiththeirenemies’heads.NoBritishofficerwentintotheirjungleswithoutalargearmedguard.Whilethereisplentytobesaidagainstimperialism—oneculturedominatinganother—notenoughis

said against selfish indifference, against choosing not to help people who are victims of their owncultures.Ro’sparents’generation,forexample,livedinpovertyandsqualor.Alcoholismdestroyedthe“fortunate”whosurvivedearlydeathfrompoorhygiene,sanitation,andnutrition.Illiteracy,quarrels,andviolencewerethenorm.Womenandchildrenweretheprimaryvictimsofthoseevils.The Hmars worshipped rivers, mountains, rocks, stars, the sun, and the moon. But Mother Nature

showednocompassiononthem.Evilspirits—realorimaginary—constantlyharassedtheHmars.Demonswerefearedandworshippedbecausetheybroughtdisease.Medicinewasunknown.Reveredpriestsandwitch doctors killed endless numbers of chickens, goats, and pigs as sacrifices to appease the angryspirits.Robelievesthatonlyexceptionallycallouspeoplewouldsaythathistribeshouldhavebeenleftalone

inits(imagined)“pristinewayoflife.”Themajoritywouldagreethattheirwayoflifewassickandneededhealing.Thedisagreementwouldbeonhowtohealit.Some Americans, who opposed the 2002 operation to democratize Afghanistan by militarily

overthrowing the Taliban regime, proposed that a culture that was housing Al Qaeda should bebombardedonlywithsatellitetelevisionthatwouldtransmittheWesternvaluesoftoleranceandfreedom.HowwouldatribeintheremotemountainsofAfghanistan,Africa,orIndiabegintounderstandthose

televisedideas?Theydon’tknowEnglish.Whatifasavagetribewatchedactionfilmsandbecamebetterathead-hunting?Orworse,whatiftheHmarswatchedHannibalLectorfilmsandaddedcannibalismtotheirhead-hunting?Ifthey’venocash,nojobs,andnobanks,thenwhowillgivethemtelevisions?Whywouldanyonedobusinesswithpeoplewhoproducenothing,exceptthosewhointendtosellthemas

slavesorprostitutes,orperhapstoprocuretheirlungs,livers,kidneys,orheartsfororgantransplantinaffluentcountries?Surely,someonemightarguethatStoneAgetribescanbecomeproductive,profitablepartnersinthe

globaleconomy,providedsomeoneeducatesthem.Therearesometowhomthevery ideaof“educating” tribesstinksofacondescendingmissionary

attitude—“civilizing”thesavages.Butthecriticsmightbepersuadedbytheargumentthateducationneednotchangeanything.Itcouldbeusedtoempowertribesatthemarginsofthemodernworld;thatis,togivethemoptions.Theywouldbefreetokeeptheirwayoflifeorchooseanalternativelifestyle.Thedisputewouldbeoverwhowoulddotheeducating.“Thestate,ofcourse!”wouldbethecontentionofsome.“Butwouldn’tthatconditionthem,”otherswouldnodoubtquestion,“toaccepttheWesternformof

welfare state as the ideal?” Moreover, how well would state-run schools function in remote jungleswhereilliterateparentsandchiefscannotpossiblysupervisethem?

THEHMARS’ISOLATION

InthecaseoftheHmars,amorebasicproblemwasthattheyhadno“state.”Theywereanautonomoustribeeveninthemiddleofthenineteenthcentury.TheearlyGazettesofthegovernmentofindependentIndiadidnotevenrecordtheirexistence.TheypaidnotaxesbecausetheMogulempire(1526–1757)didnotextendtotheirarea,andthe(multinational)BritishEastIndiaCompanythatruledmuchofIndiafrom1757to18571wasn’tinterestedintribesthatdidn’ttrade.Tomaximizeprofits,thecompanyhadtocutcosts,notaddschools.William Wilberforce and Charles Grant, two evangelical members of Parliament, fought political

battlesfortwentyyears(1793–1813)topersuadetheBritishparliamenttorequirethecompanytospendonehundredthousandIndianrupees2peryearfromitsprofitstoeducateIndians.Thatamount,however,wasnotenoughtorunevenoneschoolineachlargeurbanareaofBritishIndia.TherewasnowaythecompanycouldassumetheresponsibilityofeducatingtheHmars.Even if money had been available to start schools, what teachers would go to such barbarians?

Educatingapeopleisalifelongcommitment.Inordertoeducateatribe,onemustlivewiththem,learntheir dialect, and then turn their dialect into a literary language. To become a means of transferringcomplexideas, their languagewouldneedliterature,grammar,andadictionary.Educatingbarbariansrequiresmissionaryheroism.ItbeginswithmenlikethemissionaryWatkinsR.Roberts,whoriskedhislifefortheHmars—peoplewho,atbest,couldneverrepayhimforhisservices.Atworst,hisheadwoulddecorateoneoftheirhuts.Asithappened,theHmarswantedchange,sotheydidnotkillRoberts.Instead,theyhonoredhim.It

wastheBritishwhothrewhimoutofIndiafordefyingtheirorderagainstgoingtotheHmars.TheHmarshadlivedontheperipheryoftheHindu,Buddhist,andMuslimcivilizations.Todaysome

HindusclaimtheHmarsasapartofHinduism.ButHindupriestsneverattemptedtoeducatethem.Theyconsidered it bad karma and ritual-pollution for priests to serve outcastes.* The Brahmins held theirsacredlanguage,Sanskrit,andtheirsacredscriptures,theVedas,insuchhighregardthattheytaughtthemneithertoBrahminwomennortoanylower-casteHindus.Thequestionofteachingthemtooutcastesneverarose.Hindusdidnotconvertotherstotheirfaithbecausetheyhavenomagicthatcanmakeanon-BrahminintoaBrahmin.Hinduismisa“racial”religion.ChildrenarebornintoaparticularHinducaste(race)accordingtothekarmaoftheirpreviouslives.Non-HindusareexcludedfromtheHinducastesystemas“untouchable”races.TheMuslimsdidtaketheirlanguage,literature,andreligiontoothers.ButtheybelievedtheQur’an

could only be written in the “heavenly” language—Arabic. It could never be translated into other

languageswithoutdistortion.SotolearntheQur’an,onefirsthadtolearnArabic.Therefore,Islamneverdevelopedthelanguagesofthepeoplesitconquered.Incontrast,asmentionedinearlierchapters,itwasBible translators who developed the national languages of modern Muslim nations, such as Urdu inPakistanandBengaliinBangladesh.Languageandliterature,aswehaveseen,arekeystoapeople’sdevelopment. The Bible translators knew that a people couldn’t progress without first having theirlanguagedevelopedandenrichedsothatitcouldcommunicatecomplexideas.SomeIndiannationalists,ofcourse,wouldnotblametheHmarsforbeheadingtheBritish.Theymight

evencallthemheroic—oneofthefewpeoplesinIndiavaliantenoughtomaintaintheirindependence.Theymightconsidertheirhead-huntingstoriessensationalandarguethat theyweren’thorrendous,allthingsconsidered.Almostallpeoplesoftheworld,fromtheAssyrianstotheRomanians,haveatonetimeoranotherindulgedinmacabreenemydismemberment.Today’s“civilized”worlddoesthattoitsownalmost-bornbabies.TheGermanicGothsdrankfromthecupsmadeof theirenemy’sskulls.VladtheImpalercouldhavetaughttheHmarsathingortwo.Evenifitweretruethatallculturesrestonviolence,thequestionremains:Isatribereallybetteroffif

itretainsitsisolation,beliefs,andvaluesthatkeepitpoorandvulnerabletopreventableandcurablediseases, at the mercy of uneducated witch-doctors and warrior-chiefs? Were the Hmars wrong indesiringfundamentalchange?

THEHEADHUNTERSFINDABOOK

In1909amailrunnerbroughtabooktothechiefofthevillageofSenvoninthestateofManipur.ItwasTheGospelofJohnwrittenintheLushailanguage,usingtheRomanalphabet.TheHmarchiefcouldnotread.Norwasheusedtoreceivingjunkmail.Noonehadeverconsideredhistribeimportantenoughtoputhimontheirmailinglists!Thechiefdeducedthatsomeonethoughtthisbookwasimportantforhispeople.Atravelerwhopassedthroughthevillagereadthewordsbutdidnotunderstandtheirmeaning.Finally,onthebackpagehefoundtheaddressofthesender,Mr.WatkinsR.Roberts,abusinessmanfromWales.ChiefKamkhawlunsentmessengerstobringMr.Robertstohisvillagetoexplainthebook’smessage.

TovisitSenvon,Mr.RobertsneededpermissionfromColonelLocke,thesuperintendentoftheLushaiHillsdistrict.Thecolonelwasstern:“TheHmarpeoplearethemostsavageheadhuntersintheworld.Theywilllopoffyourheadandmakeagreatcelebrationoveryourdeadbody.Whenwegotherewetakeatleastfiftysoldierstoguardus.Icannotspareevenoneforyou.”Undaunted,Mr.RobertsfoundafewyoungmentoguidehimtoSenvoninlateJanuary1910.(Itis

possible that the Indian Maharaja of Manipur had granted him the permission.) After seven days oftrudgingsomehundredmilesoverruggedmountaintrails,theyreachedSenvon.Mr.Robertsmetwiththechiefandthevillagers.Atfirstnoonewasinterestedinhisstories.ButthelightsturnedonfortheHmarswhenheexplainedthegospelusingtheirtraditionsforsettlingtribalwars.Imagine,hesaid,thattwotribeshavewarredagainsteachotherforseveralyears.Thenoneofthe

tribesdecidesthatitwantspeace.Itsendsitsofferbybeatingahugewardrumonthemountaintopnearesttheenemycamp.Theothertriberespondsbybeatingitsdrumbeforesundown.Thetribewhofirstbeatthedrumbringsananimal,oftenamithun,oracow,totheboundarybetweenthetwotribes.Thetwochiefsandtheirmenarriveatthecarefullydrawnboundary.Theysacrificethemithunandletitsbloodflowacrosstheboundaryline.The two chiefs then put their hands on the sacrificial animal, and the spokesmen from both tribes

discussthetermsofpeace.Assoonastheyreachanagreement,thetwochiefsembraceeachotherovertheslainanimal.Thenthespokesmenpronouncepeace.Thepeopleembrace.Peaceisrestored.Theyweresetfreefromtheirdestructiveanimositiesandinsecurities.That,Mr.Robertssaid, ishowGod

madepeacewithus,hisenemies.GodmadeJesusChristthesacrificiallamb:“ForGodsolovedtheworld,thathegavehisonlySon,thatwhoeverbelievesinhimshouldnotperishbuthaveeternallife.”3Mr.RobertsexplainedtothechiefthatGodmadehumanbeingsspecial—inhisownlikeness—good,

happy,andfree.Throughsin,Satandeceivedhumanbeingsandenslavedustoallkindsofevils thatharass us—spiritual, social, and natural evils. By rebelling against God, human beings lost theirrelationshipwithGodandmuchofhischaracter.BecominglikeSatan,westartedcommittingsinsagainstGodandourneighbors—oppressingormurderingpeople,violatingwomen,hurtingourlovedonesandfamilies,robbingothers,beinggreedy,envious,quarrelsome,andimmoral.God sent prophets and priests to show us the way to harmonious living, contentment, personal

happiness,andeternallife.Butmenandwomencouldnotchangetheirwaysintheirownstrength.TheyneededaSavior,soGodtooktheinitiative.Hebeatthepeacedrums.Hecametousinhumanformandrevealedhislove,hiswayofsalvation,andeternalhappiness.Godmadepeacewithus—hisenemies.Hecanenableyour tribe tomakepeacewithotherpeople, includingneighboring tribes thathavefoughtagainstyouforgenerations.RobertsleftSenvonwithapromisetoreturnandopenaschoolandamedicalclinictoservethem.But

atAizwal,hefoundthatColonelLockehadexpelledhimfromtheLushaiHillsfordisobeyingordersandfor“demeaning”thehighBritishculturebysleepingintribalhomesandeatingtribalfood.Robertswasnever again allowed to return to the Hmar areas and villages of Manipur and Mizoram. The tribe,however,kepttalkingabouttheGospel.TheSavior,dyingasasacrificiallamb,soundedverydifferentfromeveryotherreligiousstorytheyhadeverheard.Itdidn’tsoundlikeamoralizingmyth.Mr.Watkinssaidthatitwasnotastorybutnews—goodnews.Ifso,ithadtobeeitherfalseortrue.Ro’sfather,ChawngaPudaite,thenateenager,heardthegoodnewsthatGodhadsacrificedhisownsononthecrosstomakepeacewithus—hisenemies.ChawngabecameoneoftheearliestChristiansandalongwithhisfriendslearnedtoreadtheLushailanguagetomemorizeTheGospelofJohn.Theysharedthegospelwiththeirpeople,buttheyhadnoBibleintheHmarlanguage.Chawnga’ssonRochungadecidedtobecomeafollowerofJesusChristwhenhewasonlytenyears

old.Hisparentsaskedhimtostudyatthenearestupperprimaryschool—onlyaninety-six-milewalkfromhome!Toreachhisschool,theten-year-oldRohadtowalkthroughdenseforestsinfestedwithtigers,bears,pythons,andwildelephants.Whywouldparents takesucharisk?Incomprehensibleas itmaysound,theircommandtotheirsonwas:“YoumusttranslatetheBibleforus.”Asallparents,they,too,wouldhavelikedtheirsontogetagoodjobandtoprovideforthemfinanciallyintheiroldage.Buttheyknewthattheirjunglehadnojobstooffer.“Undeveloped”communitiescreatefewjobs.ChawngacametorecognizetheBibleastheprimarydifferencebetweenthecultureoftheHmarsand

thecultureofMr.Roberts.Heconcludedthatthegreatestthinghecoulddoforhispeoplewastoaskhisson,Ro,totranslatetheBibleintotheirlanguage.Aftercompletingmiddleschool,RochungatraveledthreehundredmilestoJorhattopreparehimselftofulfillhisfather’srequest.From Jorhat, Ro went to Saint Paul’s College in Calcutta, then to Allahabad University, where I

followedhimtwodecadeslater.OuruniversitydidnotteachGreekandHebrew—theoriginallanguagesoftheBible.TostudythemRotraveledtoGlasgow,Scotland.There,hebegantranslatingtheBibleintothe Hmar language. From Scotland, he went to Wheaton, Illinois, USA, to complete his theologicaltrainingandBibletranslation.Finally,in1958,RochungareturnedtoIndiawithacompleteHmarNewTestament, translatedfromtheoriginal languages. Itwaseditedand improvedwithothers’help, thenpublishedin1960.TheHmarNewTestamentbecameaninstantbestseller.Thefirstfivethousandcopiessoldoutwithinsixmonths.ButChawnga’sdreamwasjustbeginningtobefulfilled.Afterthreemonthsathome,RodecidedtotravelthehillsofManipur,Mizoram,andAssamtoretrace

hisboyhoodadventures.HefoundthattherewasonlyonegovernmentschoolamongtheHmarvillagesoftheManipurhills.ThepeoplewantedtoreadtheBiblethathehadtranslatedforthem,buttodosothey

neededschools.Hebeganninevillageschoolsandahighschool.Withintenyears,theorganizationhefounded had opened eighty-five schools, a college, and a hospital—all without any help from thegovernment.Today85percentoftheHmarsknowthejoyofreadingandwriting.India’saverageliteracyrateislessthan60percent.Emancipationfromilliteracyandsuperstitionswasjustthebeginning.TheHmarswerenowsetonacoursetodeveloptheirGod-givenpotentialanduseittoserveGodandtheirhomeland.Intheirschools,theHmarstaughttheBibletobuildcharacterandtoinstillaspiritofself-reliance.

Traditionally,theircultureunderstoodheroismasapursuitofphysicalprowess.TobeagoodHmarwastobeagreatwarrior.Rorealizedthattransforminghistriberequiredgivingthemavisionofnewandnoblervalues.Hebelievedinthewisdomofhisfather’sdreamandwaspersonallycommittedtoit.WhatcouldfiretheheartsofyoungHmarswithapassionforpursuingexcellenceinserviceinsteadofwarfare?Ro had studied in a secular university. He knew that secular literature—Western or Indian—had

nothing as liberating as the Bible, unless it was based upon the Bible itself. His people needed tocultivatetheirmindsasmuchastheirmuscles.Butwhatuseisagoodmindunlessitisalsomoral?HaimG.Ginott(1922–73),clinicalpsychologist,educator,andbest-sellingauthorsaid:

Iamasurvivorofaconcentrationcamp.Myeyessawwhatnopersonshouldwitness.Gaschambersbuiltbylearnedengineers.Childrenpoisonedbyeducatedphysicians.Infantskilledbytrainednurses.Womenandbabiesshotandburnedbyhighschoolandcollegegraduates.

SoIamsuspiciousofeducation.Myrequestis:helpyourstudentsbecomemorehuman.Youreffortsmustneverproducelearned

monsters,skilledpsychopaths,oreducatedEichmanns.Reading,writing,andarithmeticareimportantonlyiftheyservetomakeourchildrenmorehuman.4

Ro,theBibletranslatorturnededucator,madesurethathisschoolswerenotintimidatedbysecular

ideologues.TheytaughttheBibleasthebasisofholistichumangrowth—physical,mental,social,andspiritual.Thoseschools’graduatesbecameIndia’sambassadors,chiefsecretariesofstate,adirectorgeneralof

police,high-rankingofficersoftheIndianAdministrativeServices(IAS),doctors,lawyers,engineers,professors,andpastors.Somewell-knownHmarsareH.T.Sangliana,formerdirectorgeneralofpolice,memberofParliament,andnowvicechairmanoftheMinoritiesCommission;L.T.Pudaite,ambassadortofiveormorecountries,includingHungary,S.Korea,andMyanmar;andL.Keivom,highcommissionertoNewZealand.5Mr.Sangliana’scharacterhasmadehimanationallegend.Inthemidstofmycountry’sall-pervasiveandoppressivecorruption,Bollywoodfoundhisintegritysofascinatingthathisstoryhasalreadyinspiredthreefull-lengthfeaturefilms.Thefollowing incident illustrateshowseriously theHmars took theBible.Theircollegeneededa

library;thelieutenantgovernorsawtheirneedandhelpedthemobtainonehundredthousandrupeesfromtheUniversityGrantsCommission.Whentheinspectorofcollegessawthattheyhadobtainedgovernmentfunding, he demanded that they stop teaching the Bible in their college. Instead of surrendering theirliberty, the Hmars chose to close down their college. Ro explained this decision to me: “The youngpeople must have intellectual freedom to pursue truth. But how can we cultivate in them a love forintellectualfreedomifwesurrenderourfreedomtoteachtheBible?”In the1970s,whilemanyuniversitiesweresinging thepraisesofcommunism,Rosawthrough its

bankruptcy.WhattheBibledidfortheWestandforhispeoplewasbetterthantheterrorandpovertyMarx’sDasCapitalwasinflictingonthepeopleofUSSR.ThecommunistgovernmenthadbannedtheBible.ButRowantedtoblessIndia’sRussianfriends,sohetookadvantageofanIndo-USSRfriendshiptreaty and mailed hundreds of thousands of Russian Bibles from India to every address in Russia’stelephonedirectories.Throughtheyears,Ro’sorganization,BiblesfortheWorld,hascontinuedmailing

Biblestomorethanahundredcountries.Head-huntingisnowhistory.TheHmarsarewellontheirwaytohealthandculturalvitality.Eachyear,

twodozenHmarschoolchildrenspendelevenmonthsintheUnitedStates,givingmusicalconcertsandperformingtribaldances.Bornin1927,Rohasnottakenhiswell-earnedretirement.HecontinuesasthefounderandchairmanofBiblesfortheWorld.Hisheartachesforthesoulofournation,lyingunderthecurseofthetwinevilsofcasteanduntouch-ability.WhenRowasachild,histribedidnotknowhowtolivecivillywithothers.Asanadult,hefindsitpainfulthathiscountrymendonotknowhowtoliveinbrotherlylovewithfellowHindus.Totransformasocialorderbuiltoncasteanduntouchability,Rocoinedtheslogan,“Transforminga

NationthroughEducation.” His family and organization give a great deal of time and effort to firsttransformingtheirteachersbyencouragingthemtostudytheWordofGod.Roencouragesthemtoteacheverysubjectwithbiblicalprinciples.InmystateofU.P.,morethanathousandmileswestofRo’shomestate, inalargevillageinhabitedmostlybylowercastes,RostartedamodelschoolinanattempttoprovideeducationtoIndia’suntouchables.Theirschoolhasalreadyreceivedrecognitionfromthestategovernment.Thisissignificantbecausethepopularassumptionthatallreligionsteachthesameprinciplesissimply

untrue. The Hindu social order is based on the teaching, “Exclude some of your neighbors asuntouchables.”RowantstorebuildIndiaonJesus’dictum,“Loveyourneighborasyourself.”Caste,hebelieves, is themostsignificantcauseofIndia’sweaknesses—political,social,andeconomic.Itwasbecauseofthecastesystemthatsmallbandsofforeignerswereabletocomeandcolonizethelargeandprosperous,butdeeplydivided,Hindusociety.RoplayedanimportantroleasapeacemakerbetweenthegovernmentofIndiaandthemilitantMizo

rebelswhobegananarmedrebellionagainstthegovernmentin1965.In1975,ourprimeminister,Mrs.Indira Gandhi, asked Ro to serve as her unnamed special emissary to negotiate peace with theunderground Mizos. As I write this, he is contributing to change in the Indian subcontinent. FormerpresidentClintondescribeditas“themostdangerousplaceonearth”becauseofthehostilitiesbetweennuclearneighborsIndiaandPakistan.Roisstrikingattherootoftheproblem—thespiritualityofhate6thatpreventsourpeoplefromlovingoneanother.RochungaPudaite’sfamilycontinuestopromotetheBibleworldwide.Hehasbeenchampioningthe

causeofanewuniversityinIndia—onethatwillbefoundedonthebiblicalworldview.HewantsourfuturegenerationstohaveawholesomeintellectualfoundationonwhichtobuildanewIndia,andheknowsthatallthegreatuniversitiesthatbuiltmodernWesterncivilization—Oxford,Paris,Cambridge,Princeton, Harvard, and so forth—were established to teach the Bible. Ro, a Bible translator anddistributor,hasbeenlayingthefoundationsforauniversity.RoagreeswithBibletranslatorsbeforehimthatthepenismightierthanthesword.Thatisthedistilled

wisdomofthesecondmillenniumafterChrist.Themillenniumhaditsfairshareofheroesandvillains.Theyfoughttheirwarsandlefttheirmarkonhistory.Theworld,however,recognizedthatultimatelyitisideas,notmight, thatrule theworld.Ideascreatecultures. Ideasbuild industries,services,andjobs,ultimatelymaterializingintocivilizations.RobelievestheideasthatbuiltthebestnationscamefromtheBibleandonlyarrogancecanmotivatetribeslikehistorejectwhatistrueandgood.TheBiblegenerateshopeforallpeoples.Rothinksthatitisnovirtuetoromanticizethemiseriesofa

primitivetribethatlivesatthemercyofnaturalelements,germs,demons,andunscrupulous,authoritarianpriests.TheBiblesethisimaginationfreetodreamwhathistribeoughttobe—educated;freetointeractwithneighborsandenemies;abletoovercomehunger,hate,anddisease;andreadytocontributetotheworld.Someadvocatesof“multiculturalism”condemnpeopletoliveintheStoneAge.Robelievesimaginationthatsetsusfreeisacomponentofourdistinctlyhumangift—creativity.Thatis

whyhemadethefilmBeyondtheNextMountain,7basedonhislife.Robecamealinguistbecausehe

believes that language linksourminds together tomakeus theonlyculture-creatingcreatureson thisplanet.Itenablesustostoreandtransmitideasandtoimproveuponexistingideas.HeisproudtohavebeenpartofthehistorictraditionthatmadetheBiblethebookofthelastmillennium.Thisfascinatingstoryof theBible liftingStoneAgetribesoutofoppression,chronicpoverty,and

subsistencelivingintofreedomandabundancecanbemultipliedtensofthousandsoftimesacrosseverycontinentandcountry.Educated,uppercasteHindus,suchasArunShourie,despisetheseheroiceffortstotransformcultures—without realizing thatmostof themwouldnothavebeenmuchbetterwithout theBiblecreatingmodernIndia.IhavetoldthestoryofIndia’smodernizationinthreebooks.Admittedlymybooksarejournalistic.Thankfully,theyhavebeguntoinspireyoungpeopletoresearchthesocialhistoryofIndia’smodernizationatthedoctorallevel.Intheyearstocome,therealhistoryofmodernIndiawillberescuedfromthedistortionsofleftists,

liberals,andpoliticallymotivatedHindutvahistorians.Similarhistorical researchhasbegun inmanynations to demonstrate that globalization is a result neither of military colonization nor of coca-colonization.ItispartialfulfillmentofGod’spromisetoAbrahamthathewouldblessallthenationsoftheearthbyhischildrenwhoobeyhisWord.*ThegeneralwaslaterknightedandbecameknownasLordRobertsofKandahar,inAfghanistan.*TribalsinIndiaarenon-Hindus;thereforetheyareclassifiedas“outcastes.”

ChapterTwenty

THEFUTURE

MUSTTHESUNSETONTHEWEST?

Mark Zuckerberg, the creator of Facebook, is history’s youngest billionaire. David Fincher“celebrated”Zuckerberg’slifeinthemovieTheSocialNetwork,judgedbyAmerica’snationalboardoffilm review as the best film of 2010. The film’s most pathetic character is Harvard University,representedbyitscommitteesandpresident.Zuckerberg,alawuntohimself,showstotalcontemptforHarvard,itsvalues,anditsrules.Yet,theuniversitycannotholdhimaccountableforanything.Itretainsabsolutelynophilosophicalbasisforinvokingconscienceorcharacter.Thefilmsendsthemessagethatnowtheuniversityexistsonlytoteachskills.Characterhasbeenexcludedbythesecularworldview.Thebestitcandoistoteachyouhowtoavoidthelongarmofthelaw.ThislossofasenseoftruthandgoodnesshitmewhenadoctoralscholaratHarvardprotestedWilliam

Carey’scampaignagainst“widow-burning”inIndia.Imposinghervaluesonanotherage,shedemanded,“Whycouldn’tthiswhiteChristianmalerespectotherpeople’sbeliefsandcultures?”Hermoraloutrageexposed clichés of multiculturalism and relativism that poorly camouflage the intellectual and moralbankruptcyoftheWest’selite.Relativismisnowitsonlyvirtue.Thistransformed“tolerance”underminesthecompassoftruth—theBible—whichHarvardoriginallyhadandwhichcouldhavehelpedZuckerbergsucceedasaninnovator,whilealsolovinghisneighbors,respectinghispartners,andhonoringthoseinauthority.AsbrilliantbutamoralgraduatesfromsecularuniversitiessuchasHarvardgaincontrolofAmerica’s

economicandpoliticallife,theworldhaseveryreasontoceasetrustingAmerica.ThetrustthatmadethedollarthereservecurrencyoftheworldcamefromtheoriginalHarvardcreatedbytheBible.Sunsetsarespectacular.Peoplerevelinthem.Sunsetsalsotellusthatitistimetolightourlamps.

ManyculturesthatfollowedtheWestintobrilliantmodernityarenowdustingofftheirrustylamps.RussiaandChinahavedecidedtotradeintheirowncurrencies,notindollars.EvenSaudiArabiamysoonselloilforeurosandyen.Lossoftrusthasconsequencesbeyondeconomics.In1987,asignificantsectionofHinduleadershipbackedamassmovementtolegalizeSati—widow-burning.TheBritishbannedSatiasinhumane in 1829, but why should India follow British prejudices? Appealing to the “clash ofcivilizations,”non-Westernculturesarereturningtotraditionalworldviews,includingJihad.Relativismistheonlyvalueatruthlessculturecandictate.Theonlythingits“tolerance”findshardto

tolerateistheWest’straditionalvaluesystem.1Goodnessandtrutharebeingreplacedbydebaucheryanddepravity. The culture celebrates porn stars. Drug peddlers are powerful and respected politicallobbyists.At leastuntil9/11,both theWest’s intellectualeliteandIslamiccountrieswereurgingournationstosavethemselvesfromtheWest’s“corruptinginfluence.”MusttheWestcontinueonitspathtothe“Endarkenment”thatfollowssunsets?Atthedawnofthethirdmillennium,theWestresemblesthelegendaryfishinalargetank.Aresearcher

blockedoffasectionofthetankwithatransparentwallandputfishfoodinthesealed-offsection.Thefish tried to get to its food but could not. After repeated failed attempts the fish learned that its

nourishmentwasbeyondreach,soitstoppedtrying.Atthatpointtheresearcherremovedthewall,butthefishdidnottrytogettothefood.Theresearcheraddedfreshfood,butthefishhadgivenuptrying.Itdiedofstarvation.Thatfishdiedbecauseitbelievedthefoodwasinaccessible.Whatiftheresearchercouldtellthefish

thatthewallhadbeenremoved?Whatifthefishwasaspiritualbeingwithfreewill?Whatifitcouldchoose to believe a word that contradicted its earlier experience? In that case the fish might havesurvived.Communicationandbeliefmatter.Revelationgenerateshopeandeffort.At times,believingwhatyouaretoldmeansthedifferencebetweenlifeanddeath.TheissueisnotwhetherthereishopefortheWestbutwhethertheWesthasthehumilitytoreturntorevelation,whetheritcanrecoverthefaiththatgenerateshope.Hopeandconfidencethatthehumanspiritcanovercomeobstaclesweredefiningfeaturesofmodern

Westerncivilization.ButnowthesecularWestisunsureifthehumanspiritevenexistsexceptasaword.Atthesametime,oneresultofdenyingthesoul is thatWesternphilosophersnolongerknowwhata“word”is.ManyarefollowingIndia’sphilosophyofSilenceastheultimatereality.Havingrejectedthedivinelogos(theWord)asitsfoundation,nowtheWestisunsureiflanguagehasanythingtodowithtruth.EventhoughtheWest’shistoryconfirmstheBible’steachingthathumanbeingsareendowedwithuniquedignity,itsuniversitiesnowclaimthathistorycanbenothingbutapointofview.SecularuniversitieshaveblockedtheWestfromtruth.Consequently, itassumesthatmanismerely

biology,thatthereisnoOneouttherewhocaresenoughtorevealsavingtruth.Ismannothingmorethanafish, without purpose, dignity, or responsibility? Is free will a fiction? Are we determined by ourchemistry and environment? Psychologist John B. Watson (1878–1958) summarized this secularworldviewinaclassiclecturein1913.Hesaid,“Thebehavioristrecognizesnodividinglinebetweenmanandbrute.”2AmericanpsychologistB.F.SkinnerunderstoodthatthisphilosophyrequiredthesecularWest to go “beyond freedom and dignity.”3 Billions are descending from freedom and dignity intofatalisticdespair.Adivorcemaybenecessarybutattheendofthedayitisresignation.Abortionissoldas“choice”butinmostcases,itisfatalism—abeliefthatthechildorthemothercannothaveagoodlifewithouttakingthebaby’slife.Individualsresigningthemselvestothedeathoftheirmarriageorbabyarelikethefishthatlostfaith,andthereforehope.EventhemainstreamWesternchurchisbeingcorrupted.4

SECULARFATALISM

Ruth and I celebrated the dawn of the new millennium in Cambridge, England, where we wereresearchingforthisbook.Inearly2000,whilecopyingsomematerialatthelibrary,RuthmetThomasDixon,ayoungdoctoralstudentwhobecamefascinatedbyourproject.Dixonhadpublishedapaper5explaininghowtheflawedsecularnotionofphysiologicalemotionshadreplacedclinicaluseofthemorehelpfulbiblicalparadigmofthesoulhavingpassionsandaffections.WehadnotheardofJonathanEdwards’sbookTheReligiousAffections(1746).Edwards,America’s

firstphilosopher,basedhisteachingonSt.Augustine’strinitarianviewofmanderivedfromtheNewTestament.Edwards’sparadigm,Dixonsaid,wasfarmoreusefulforclinicalpsychologythanCharlesDarwin’s1872bookTheExpressionsof theEmotions inManandAnimals. Most twentieth-centuryscientists, philosophers, and psychologists—including Freud and Watson—had adopted Darwin’sparadigm.TheyoungmantoldRuthhewasnotaChristianbutthathisresearchhadconvincedhimthatChristians

had lost the wealth of their biblical heritage, and the world was poorer for it. As Ruth tried tocomprehendtheenormityofthisthought,Dixonaskedwhataclinicalpsychiatristshoulddoforapatientfilledwithrage,jealousy,andhatred.Whatifthepatient’ssituationissocomplexandsohopelessthatheiscontemplatingdivorce,murder,orsuicide?Thepsychiatristcanonlyaddressthepatient’s“emotions.”

Hecannottakeontheroleofapriestwhocanlistentothepatient’sconfessionandforgiveinordertoheal.Thepatientcouldgotoa therapist,whowoulddescribehisangerandhatredassecularemotions.

Thesearetreatedaschemicalandphysiologicalchangesinhisbrainandthemuscles.Thetherapistcouldreferhimtoadoctorforaprescriptionthatwouldchangehischemistryandrelaxthemuscles.Butdoesadrugexistthathastheabilitytoproducethe“emotions”offorgivenessorloveforhisenemy,meaningandpurpose for his life, and a hope for the future? Can chemistry create inner peace that comes fromrepentanceandpromotespositiverelationshipsorfaithinafuturedispensationofjustice?RuthknewthatmanysuicidalmenlikeKurtCobaincontinueintheirdespair,anger,ormaniainspiteof

takingpsychiatricmedication.Medicationmayhelpsuperficially,butitcannotcurethedeepestmaladiesofourhumanity.SinceRuthknewthatDixon’sideaswouldinterestme,sheinvitedhimover.Dixonexplainedtomethatinthefinalanalysisthepatient’sangermaynotbearesultofhischemistry.

Itmaybecausedbyabelief—trueorfalse—thathehasbeeninsulted,cheated,treatedunjustly,orisingreatdanger.Hishatredandfearmaybebasedonabeliefthathemightlosesomethingprecious—hisjob,honor, life, position, possession, spouse, or child. His beliefs may be true, but such emotions makemattersworse.JonathanEdwardscalledthesenegativeemotionsthe“passionsofthesoul.”6Oftentheseareinvoluntaryoratleastreactionary.Likewise, desirable emotions of repentance or forgiveness may only come from a belief that God

commandsustorepentorforgiveothersbecausehehasforgivenoursins.Loveforanenemymaycomefrom prayer for supernatural help. Hope and joy may follow a theological assurance that God is incontrol.ThedecisiontoreturngoodforevilmightcomefromadesiretoobeyGod’sWord,orfromarelianceonGod’sfuturejustice.Thesepositiveemotionsarecrucialforone’shealing.Edwardscalledthemthe“soul’saffections.”TheBibledescribesthemasthe“fruitoftheSpirit.”Dixonaddedthatitdidnotmattertohimwhetherornotahumanbeinghasaspirit.Whatseemed

obviousisthattolumppassions(worksoftheflesh)andaffections(thefruitoftheSpirit)intoasinglecategoryofamoralanimalemotionsisunhelpfulandintellectuallyuntenable.Thesepositiveandnegativeemotionsaremorethanchemistry.Theyarebasedonbeliefs,knowledge,cognition,choice,orprayer.They are more than biological phenomenon. Philosophers who reject the mystery of the soul have toexplainawayourexperienceoffreewillassomethingotherthanwhatitappears—freewill.Yet,anactofthewill,suchasrepentance,faith,orforgiveness,maybethebestmeansoftransformingone’sinneremotionsandexternalsituations.Headmittedthatnooneknowswhatfreewillisandhowwecametopossessit.Heinsisted,however,

thatwecannotdenywehavefreewill—theabilitytochoosetoforgiveorretaliate.Onecancallthisaspectofourbeingmentalratherthanspiritual,butthatissemanticslight-of-hand.Toclaimthatfreewillissheerchemistryistoassertanunprovablephilosophicaldogma.Chemistryoffersusnoexplanationforourexperienceofourselves.Chemistrydoesaffectthemind.Themindaffectsthebody.Nevertheless,themindisclearlymorethanchemistryasweknowit.Whatheseemedsureofwasthatchangingourbeliefscantransformnegative,harmful,ordestructive

emotionsintolife-affirmingones.Wealsoknowthatnoteverybeliefisequallyconducivetoahappyandhopefullife.Everyday,therapistsconfrontbeliefsthatmakelifeatortuoushell.Whatapersonchoosestobelievestronglyinfluenceswhetherhelivesinpeaceorintorment.Why do we believe that human emotions are merely evolved versions of animal emotions? Dixon

explained that American philosopher William James popularized this idea in his 1884 essay entitled“What Is an Emotion?” James opined that “an emotion was nothing but [the] combination of varioussensationsresultingfrombodilydisturbances.”7ThisbecamethedefaultassumptionintheWestastheculturedriftedfromtheBible’sspiritualworldviewtothepresuppositionthatmaterialnatureisallthatexists—philosophicalmaterialism.8

ThankstoDixon’sdiscourse,Ibecameawarethatmanyresearchscientistshadbecomesuspiciousofthesimplistic,reductionistviewofthehumanmindandemotionspromotedbyDarwinandJames.Dr.Jeffrey M. Schwartz, professor of psychiatry at UCLA, explained why “mind” cannot be reduced to“brain.”9 Neuroscientist Beauregard similarly reviewed evidence for the Soul.10 Suppose someone’sbrainisbadlywiredandhesuffersfromanxietydisorder,obsessivethoughts,andcompulsivebehavior.Canhismind(soulorpsyche)teachhisbraintoactresponsibly?Schwartz’sdiscipline,neuroplasticity,harnessesourmind’scapacitytorewireourbrain.Theprinciplesarenotdifficulttounderstand:Ifyouhavediabetesorhighcholesterol,thenyoudon’t

eatwhatyourbodycraves.Youchoosetoeatthefoodthatisrightforyou.Thenonphysicalpartsofus,oursoul(mind,will,andemotion)andspirit(intuition,communion,conscience)helpusseparategoodfrom bad, right from wrong. Our minds rule—at least ought to rule—over our bodies and cravings.Humansdifferfromanimalsinthatwesubject(oroughttosubject)ourbodilypassionstochoicesthatarewiseandmoral.Thisphenomenonof“oughtto”makesusmoralorspiritualcreatures,differentfromotherspecies.11Letusassumethathumanshavenosoulormindandthatthebrainisbutabiochemicalmachine.Thenit

couldreacttoitsenvironmentbutitcouldnotinitiateanythingnewoutofitsown“freewill.”Ourlawdoesnotholdamentallysickpersonresponsiblefor“criminal”actions.Ourentirelegalsystemisbasedontheassumption,however,thatapersonwhomakesfreechoicesisresponsibleforthem.Ifnoonewerereallyfree,thenouremotionswouldbeculturallyconditionedchemicalresponses.Theirevolutionarypurposewouldbetoaidourchancestosurviveandprocreate.Inotherwords,itwouldbenaturalforanendangeredorganismtoretaliate.Whenthreatened,thatorganismwouldfightbackinfear.Ifanindividualisweakerthanhisenemy,hemightretaliatewithwords—cursesandabuses—orhemightplantotakerevengeatamorefavorablemoment.ThisiswhattheBiblecallsthelifeofa“natural”12man.In contrast, consider the story of Gladys Stains, an Australian missionary to India. Her husband,

Graham,haddevotedhislifetoservinglepersinIndia’seasternstateofOrissa.Gladyswasanordinaryhousewife,butshestunnedournationbyspontaneously,unpretentiously,humbly,andgenuinelyforgivingmilitantHindusfor theiratrocities.Theyhadburnedaliveherhusband,Graham,and two littlesons,Philip(eleven)andTimothy(seven)onJanuary23,1999.13OnJanuary26,2005,thegovernmentofIndiahonoredGladyswithoneofourhighestcivilianhonors—PadmaBhushan.Whyshouldanindividualbegivenanationalhonorsimplyforforgivingmurderers?Toappreciatethat

forgiveness,rememberthatIndia’sandPakistan’sbirthsasfreenationscamewiththeterriblepainofHindu-Muslim-Sikh sectarian riots. About ten million were made homeless. One-half to one millionpeoplewerekilled,includingMahatmaGandhi.Fiftyyearsofseculardemocracyandeducationcouldnotfreeusfromthisdestructivechainofviolenceandrevenge.Hindu-Muslimclasheshaveburnedtrainloadsofinnocentpassengers,leadingtoriotsthatlastforweeks.FrequentriotshavereducedIndianMuslimstorelativepovertyandpowerlessness.AnysuccessfulMuslimbusinessmanisamarkedtargetforthenextroundofriots.Evensympatheticbankershesitatetolendtohim.Gladys’ssimpleactofforgivenessbecameanationalphenomenonbecauseitbrokethiscommonchain

ofcauseandeffect.Incityaftercity,Hindu,Muslim,Sikh,Buddhist,Jain,andsecularleadersgatheredtopublicly honor Gladys as a saint to emulate. The government of India was simply the last in line toacknowledge that Gladys Stains is an ordinary woman with an extraordinary spirit—possessed of aspiritualitythatcouldhealournation.

THESAVIOR

Howarewetounderstandabiochemicalorganismwhoforgivesandblessesthosewhoridicule,mock,strip,insult,andbeathim?Howcanhelovethosewhospitonhim,putacrownofthornsonhishead,and

thenmurderhimbynailinghimtoawoodencross?JonathanEdwardsunderstoodspiritualrevivalbyreadingtheapostlePeter’sfirstletterintheNew

Testament.Peterpraisesbelieversforgloryingintheirhumiliation.Whyshouldbiochemicalorganismsstrugglingforphysicalsurvivalrejoicewhentheyarediscriminatedagainstandunjustlytreated?14Howcould they bless those who persecute them?15 How could they respond to injustices “with joyinexpressibleandfilledwithglory”?16Isitpossibleforanyonetobehonestwhenhispersonalneedsandsocialenvironmentencourageor

advocate moral compromise and corruption? Jonathan Edwards triggered America’s first GreatAwakeningandEngland’sMethodistrevivalbecausetheBibletaughthimthat“religiousaffections”were[super]natural fruit of a spiritual revival. These fruits appear when people are “born again” into aspirituallifebyGod’slivingWord.Are these pious platitudes? The Great Awakening was not a religious dogma. It exemplified the

historicalsecretofAmerica’sgreatness.ItisthereasonwhyEnglandescapedbloodyrevolution.ThesunshoneontheWestwhenitsculturalleadersunderstoodthattheHolySpirithadactuallyenabledPeter’soriginalreaders—thebelievers—tolivethewaythatChristlived.Clearly,aspiritualrevival thatfillspeoplewithpersonal joyandpurpose, thatgives themstaying

powerinthemidstofseveretrials,andthatenablesthemtolovethosewhoill-treatthem,wouldsavemuchmorethantheWesternfamily.ItwouldsolvethesocialproblemsthatdroveKurtCobainandmanyotherstosuicide.Itwouldreinvigorateeconomiessappedbylossofmorale,mutualdistrust,frivolouslitigation, stifling regulations, private theft, and corporate corruption. Jonathan Edwards triggered theGreatAwakeningbyexpounding1Peter1:8–9:

Thoughyouhavenotseenhim[Christ],youlovehim.Thoughyoudonotnowseehim,youbelieveinhimandrejoicewithjoythatisinexpressibleandfilledwithglory,obtainingtheoutcomeofyourfaith,thesalvationofyoursouls.

Thebeliever’sjoywasproducednotbychemistrybutbya“faithmorepreciousthangold”anda“livinghope”producedbythe“resurrectionofJesusChrist.”The“livingandabidingWordofGod”17gavethema“newbirth,”makingpossiblealifeofuncompromisingholiness.

AMERICA’SGREATAWAKENING

TheGreatAwakeningwasnotacure-all.NorwereJonathanEdwards,GeorgeWhitefield,andJohnWesleyperfect.It isrighttosubmitthemtocriticalscrutinyaswewouldanypublicfigureorsocialmovement.Itissecularbigotry,however,tospeakofthemonlywithnegativeovertones.ThefactisthattheAmericanAwakeninginthe1730sanditsBritishcounterpartbecamethewatershedmovementsinshaping America and Great Britain. By teaching people to revere God’s Word and its principles, itensured the success of America’s independence and Britain’s democracy. In contrast, the secularEnlightenmentinFranceledtoarevolutionthatcatastrophicallydegeneratedintototalitarianism.EverycountryinSouthandCentralAmericaandtheCaribbeanthatfollowedtheFrenchRevolutionfellintodictatorship.Secularrevolutionsmerelyreplaceonesinfulauthoritywithanother.Incontrast,attheheartoftheGreatAwakeningwasarevivalofpersonalpiety.Itssocialconsequences

werefarreaching.Itunited80percentofallAmericansinacommonworld-and-lifeview,whichensuredthat America remained one nation even though Americans were divided among many denominations.Thanks to later contributions by men such as Roger Williams, the Awakening made it possible forAmericatoacceptthenonestablisheddenominationsofEuropeandissenters.AculturalprecedentwassetthathasmadereligioustoleranceadefiningcharacteristicofAmericanlife.

InanearlierchapterwenotedthatthespiritualGreatAwakeningledto“grassrootsintellectualism.”Itsemphasis on studying the Bible inspired people to enhance the quantity and quality of Americaneducational opportunities. Edwards became president of Princeton University. George Whitefield, thesecondmostimportantleaderoftheGreatAwakening,foundedtheschoolthatbecametheUniversityofPennsylvania.ItsinauguralfacultymemberswerePresbyterianministerswhoseinterestineducationwasrootedintheirconcernforsouls.ItreflectedthepeculiarlyProtestantnotionthateducationshouldbeavailableforallbecausetheBibleteachesthatGodwantseveryonetoknowthetruth.18TheGreatAwakening’ssenseof responsibility forhumansoulsextended toNativeAmericansand

slaves.GeorgeWhitefieldwasthefirstEuropeantopreachtoblackpeople.Asaresultofhisefforts,Americanslavesbegantocherishliteracy.TheywantedtoreadtheBibleandwereencouragedtodoso.While the First Great Awakening did not address slavery, it did become the force that democratizedAmerica and led to the American Revolution. That inspired many more quests for political liberty,eventuallyendingcolonialism.Someevangelicalsbegandenouncingslaveryassinful.TheBritishrevivalled to ending the slave trade. In the United States, the abolition of slavery followed the SecondAwakening,whichbeganunderantislaverypreacherssuchasCharlesFinney,LymanBeecher,hissons,andhisdaughterHarriet,whowroteUncleTom’sCabin.19The Great Awakening took Jesus’ promise of “rest for your souls”20 to the masses. That promise

releasedmanyfromanxietyatthecoreoftheirbeing.OntheauthorityofGod’sWord,therevivalistsassuredbelieversthatGodhadacceptedthemashisownchildren.21Thishelpedordinarypeoplefindmeaningintheirlives.AhousewifecouldreadtheBibleandrelatehereverydaylife,herjoys,andhersorrowstotheBible’scosmicframeworkofthekingdomofGod.God’sWordmotivatedhertoloveGodbyworshippingwithotherChristians,lovingherneighbors,andservinghercommunity.Thisgeneratedthe peculiar volunteerism that defined American compassion, until the socialist mind-set begandismantlingitinfavorofentitlementattitudes.Yet,itwasthepowerofAmericanvolunteerism,firedbytheBible’svisionofthekingdomofGod,whichenabledaragtagarmytowinhistory’smostsuccessfulrevolution.Historian Gregory Nobles is one of many who documented how the Great Awakening forced

communitiestotakeamoreactiveroleinlocalpoliticalandreligiousaffairs,creatingthecommunityvibrancythatfosteredthespiritdrivingtheAmericanWarofIndependence.22Afterstudyingsermonsofthat era, historian William McLoughlin concluded that “the roots of the Revolution as a politicalmovementweresodeeplyimbeddedinthesoiloftheFirstGreatAwakeningfortyyearsearlierthatitcanbetrulysaidthattheRevolutionwasthenaturaloutgrowthofthatprofoundandwidespreadreligiousmovement.”23AfewleadinglightsoftheAmericanRevolutionwereindeedDeists,butitisfoolishtoconcludethat

DeismorsecularismbirthedAmericandemocracy.McLoughlinclarifies:

[T]heimpetusfor[theAmerican]revoltcamefromnon-scientificsources,andoneofthemostimportantofthesewaspietisticreligion.JonathanEdwardsunderstoodbetterthanmostdeiststhewellspringsofhumanaction…TheknowledgehistorianshaveaboutthedeisticviewsofJefferson,Adams,Franklin,andWashingtonwasnotknowntothepeopleoftheirday,forthesemenwiselyconfinedtheirheterodoxytotheirprivatecorrespondence.24

TheAmericanRevolutionwasfueledbythecovenanttheologythatbeganwiththeHuguenotsandcame

toAmericawithPuritansandPresbyterians.DanielElazarisoneofmanywhohavedocumentedthat“thecovenantsoftheBiblearethefoundingcovenantsofWesterncivilization.”25GeorgeWashingtonhonoredthiscornerstoneofAmerican libertyonApril30,1789, in theFederalHall inNewYorkbeforehispeopleandhisGod.RaisinghisrighthandandplacinghisleftontheBible,hetookhisoathasthefirstpresident of the United States, adding “so help me God.”26 Since then, virtually every United States

presidenthastakenhisoathofofficewithrighthandupraisedandlefthandontheBible.SomewhodidnotdosowerealsofollowingtheirunderstandingofJesus,whoaskedhisdisciplesnottoswear.Forsomeitwasbutatradition.ButnotsoforGeneralWashington,wholedAmericafrom1755toherlibertyand served as her first president. With biblical Christianity in mind, Washington said: “Religion andmoralityaretheessentialpillarsofcivilsociety.”27WashingtonwasnotaloneinbelievingtheBiblewasthekeytoAmericancharacter.PresidentJohn

QuincyAdamssaid,“SogreatismyvenerationoftheBible,thattheearliermychildrenbegintoreaditthemoreconfidentwillbemyhopethattheywillproveusefulcitizensoftheircountryandrespectablemembersofsociety.IhaveformanyyearsmadeitapracticetoreadthroughtheBibleonceeveryyear.”28PresidentAbrahamLincolnstatedthat“theBibleisthebestgiftGodhasevergiventomen.AllthegoodfromtheSavioroftheworldiscommunicatedtousthroughthisBook.”29 InapublicmessagetotheAmericanBibleSocietyinAugust1956,PresidentDwightD.EisenhowersummeduptheBible’splaceinAmerica:“TheBibleisendorsedbytheages.Ourcivilizationisbuiltuponitswords.”

SINNERSINTHEHANDSOFALOVINGFATHER

ThechiefcriticismsofEdwardsarerootedindislikeofhissermon“SinnersintheHandsofanAngryGod,”preachedonJuly8,1741.Inthis,therevival’sbest-knownsermon,Edwardscomparedthehumanconditiontothatofaspiderdanglingbyhisweboverahotfire.Hepointedoutthatanindividualcouldlosehisholdonlifeatanymomentandhissoulbeplungedintothefiresofeternaldamnation.PeoplewhorejectEdwards’steachingonthesoulorofGod’shatredforsindislikethissermon.TheydislikethethoughtthatGodholdshumanbeingsaccountabletoanabsolutestandardofrightconduct.Theprinciplesofresponsibilityandaccountabilityarebuttheflipsideofdignityandfreedom.Fora

persontobefreetochoose,sheorhemustacceptresponsibilityandbejudgedforthechoicessheorhemakes.Someholdthataserialrapistandmurderershouldnotbepunished,forexample,becausehisbehaviorwasconditionedbythewayhisfathertreatedhim.Thisreducesahumanpersontothelevelofafish that can make no free choices, doing only what it has learned. The atheistic USSR, China, andKampucheademonstratethatwhenyouexcludethespiritualdimensionandabolishthefearofGod,asWatsonandSkinnerdid,youreplacethemwithfearsometotalitarianism.SermonssuchasEdwards’shelped create the West’s freedom31 because Edwards’s hearers knew that, like Jesus, Edwards wasinvitingsinnerstotheeternalbosomofalovingandforgivingFather.

DIGNITYANDIMMORTALITY

SincebeforeSt.Augustine,theissueofman’suniquedignityhasbeeninseparablytiedtothequestion:Dowehaveanonmaterialsoulanddoweexistbeyondphysicaldeath?ThebeliefintheimmortalityofthesoulwasahugefactorbehindtheWest’srespectfortheinalienable

rights of every individual. Individual liberty meant respecting individual conscience and not sendingdissenters into concentration camps. This respect came out of the belief that there will be a finaljudgment;therefore,individualsoughttohavethelibertytolivebytheirconscience.Isthisconceptofthesoul’s immortalityreligiousmumbojumbo?BelievinginafuturejudgmentbytheSupremeJudge, theMagnaCartawassecuredbyoathsbeforeGod.So,too,America’sfoundersrequiredeverylegislatorandofficertosweartoupholdtheConstitution.Beforethelaw,everywitnessmustfirstsweartotellthetruth.ItwascustomaryforthemtodosowithahandontheBible.WhyistheWordsoimportant?Whatislife?Biologytellsusthatatitsroot,lifeisinformation—DNA.32Whatisword?Information!

Whatisfaith?Believinginformation!JesussaidthatGod’sWordistheseedthatblossomsintoeternal

lifewhencombinedwithourfaith.33

ISRESURRECTIONPLAUSIBLE?

During my undergraduate years, the toughest challenge to my faith came from Chatterjee, mentionedearlier,whorejectedeventhepossibilitythatJesushadbeenresurrected.Heargued,“IdonotknowwhomovedthestonethathadsealedJesus’tomb,whyhistombwasempty,orwhathappenedtohiscorpse.WhatIknowisthatJesusdidnotrisefromthedead,becauseresurrectionisimpossible.Onceyouaredead,youaredead.Deathistheendofourexistence.Thereisnosoulthatcontinuesbeyonddeath.”Ithoughtovermyfriend’schallengeseriously.Jesusmayormaynothaverisenfromthedead,butcouldhelogicallyassertthatresurrectionisimpossible?Whatisultimatereality:deathorlife?Itispossibletobelievethatdeathistheoriginalandtheultimatereality.Inthebeginning,therewasno

life,noGod,noangels,nospirits,nocells,andnoamoebae.Lifeemergedinacosmicaccidentandhasbeenevolvingeversince.Oneday,perhapsafewbillionyearsfromnow,anotheraccidentwillcauselifetocompletelydisappearfromthecosmos.Thatmakesdeaththeultimatereality.But, if that is true, then I have already conceded that all life came out of death! How, then, is

resurrection impossible? On the other hand, if the ultimate reality is life—a “living” God who livesoutsidethespace-timecontinuum,whoseededlifeintoourcosmos—thenresurrectionmustbepossibleandshouldbeexpected.

WORDANDTHESOURCEOFLIFE

Ouragetrivializeswordsandpersonhoodbecausemanyassumethatimpersonal,physicalenergyistheultimate reality. Therefore intelligence, information, and communication cannot possibly be a part ofultimatereality.Thefactis,ourwordsdodescribeandencapsulateinvisiblelawsthatgovernunknowngalaxies.Wordshelpusplansuccessfultripstoouterspace.Ouruniquegiftoflanguageenablesustocreateculture.Wordsarecreative.Word(information)islifebecausetheBiblesaysthatGodcreatedtheuniversewithhiswords.Jesusmadeanastoundingclaimabouttherelationshipofhiswordstolifewhenhesaid,

Truly,truly,Isaytoyou,whoeverhearsmywordandbelieveshimwhosentmehaseternallife.Hedoesnotcomeintojudgment,buthaspassedfromdeathtolife.

Truly,truly,Isaytoyou,anhouriscoming…whenthedeadwillhearthevoiceoftheSonofGod,andthosewhohearwilllive.

ForastheFatherhaslifeinhimself,sohehasgrantedtheSonalsotohavelifeinhimself.Andhehasgivenhimauthoritytoexecutejudgment…anhouriscomingwhenallwhoareinthetombswillhearhisvoiceandcomeout,thosewhohavedonegoodtotheresurrectionoflife,andthosewhohavedoneeviltotheresurrectionofjudgment.34

SuchaclaimiseitherlunacyorTruth.Christ’scriticscondemnedhimforclaimingtobedivine.35Hisdisciples,ontheotherhand,sawhiswordsbringamanbacktolifewhohadbeendeadforfourdays.36ThedisciplesheardJesuspredicthisdeathandresurrection.TheysawJesusdie.Thentheysawhimresurrected.Thistookawaytheirfearofdeath.Attheimminentriskofmartyrdom,theyproclaimedJesustobethecreatorandsavioroftheworld,theonewhogivesuseternallifewithGod.TheapostleJohndescribedGod’spowertogiveuseternallifeinthesewords:

SeewhatkindoflovetheFatherhasgiventous,thatweshouldbecalledchildrenofGod;andsoweare.Thereasonwhytheworlddoesnotknowusisthatitdidnotknowhim.Beloved,weareGod’schildrennow,andwhatwewillbehasnotyetappeared;butweknowthatwhenheappearsweshallbelikehim,becauseweshallseehimasheis.Andeveryonewhothushopesinhimpurifies

himselfasheispure.37

THEPARABLEOFTWOEGGS

IusedaparablewithsomeinternationalscholarsinCalifornia.Iheldaneggineachhand,andIaskediftheycouldtellanydifferencebetweenthetwo.Thestudentsrespondedthattheeggslookedidenticaltothem.Theycouldwellbefromthesamefarm,evenfromthesamehen.“Neitheroftheseisboiledorrotten,”Iassuredthem.“Butifyouincubatethem,oneofthemwillhatch,

theotherwillnot.Canyoutellmewhichofthesewillchangeintoachicken?”Noonehadaclue.“Thedifference,”Iexplained,“isthattheegginmyrighthandisfertilized,theotherisnot.Bothare

livingorganisms,buttheegginmyrighthandhasreceived‘life.’Rightnow,thatlifeistransformingitfromtheinside.Soonitwillceasebeinganegg.Itsidentityasaneggwilldie,butitwillberebornassomethingmoreglorious.Itwillbecomelikeitsparents.Whatdoesitmeanwhenwesaythatanegghasbeenfertilized,thatithasreceivednewlifethroughasperm?”One of the students instantly got the point: “It has received certain information encoded in some

chemicals.”Exactly! That information established what this egg will become. That information determined its

gender, color, and size, in fact, its every cell and organ, as well as most traits. At its core, life isinformation. Biological information is encoded in DNA. Our minds’, our souls’ information isencapsulatedinwords.ThosewhoreceiveGod’sWordreceiveGod’sowneternallife.TheBiblesaysthat

ifyouconfesswithyourmouththatJesusisLordandbelieveinyourheartthatGodraisedhimfromthedead,youwillbesaved.Forwiththeheartonebelievesandisjustified,andwiththemouthoneconfessesandissaved.38

OncewereceiveandbelieveGod’sWord,itbeginstransformingoursoulsintoGod’slikeness.As

illustratedbythisegg’stransformation,ultimatelyourbiologicallivesreceiveGod’simperishableseedthatrebirthsusintoGod’seternallikeness.TheapostlePetersaid,“Youhavebeenbornagain,notofperishableseedbutofimperishable,throughthelivingandabidingwordofGod.”39TheScripturesweregiventoeducateustoreceivelifebyreceivingGod’slivingWordintoourlives.TheBiblesays,

[Jesus]cametohisown,andhisownpeopledidnotreceivehim.Buttoallwhodidreceivehim,whobelievedinhisname,hegavetherighttobecomechildrenofGod,whowereborn,notofbloodnorofthewillofthefleshnorofthewillofman,butofGod.40

THEWORDANDINDIVIDUALTRANSFORMATION

TheWordofGodisthepowerthattransformsourcharacter.TheapostlePaulwrotetoTimothy:

[F]romchildhoodyouhavebeenacquaintedwiththesacredwritings,whichareabletomakeyouwiseforsalvationthroughfaithinChrist Jesus. All Scripture is breathed out by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training inrighteousness,thatthemanofGodmaybecompetent,equippedforeverygoodwork.41

HarvardwasnamedafterRev.JohnHarvard.Its1692mottois:Veritas,christoetecclesiae(Truth,for

ChristandtheChurch).Harvard’s1646RulesandPreceptsread:

2.LeteveryStudentbeplainlyinstructed,andearnestlypressedtoconsiderwell,themaineendofhislifeandstudiesis,toknowGodand Jesus Christ which is eternal life (John 17:3) and therefore to lay Christ in the bottome, as the only foundation of all sound

knowledgeandLearning.AndseeingtheLordonlygivethwisedome,Leteveryoneseriouslysethimselfbyprayerinsecrettoseekeitofhim(Proverbs2:3).

3.EveryoneshallsoexercisehimselfeinreadingtheScripturestwiceaday,thatheshallbereadytogivesuchanaccountofhisproficiencytherein,bothinTheoreticallobservationsofLanguageandLogick,andinpracticalspiritualtruths,ashisTutorshallrequire,accordingtohisability;seeingtheentranceofthewordgivethlight,itgivethunderstandingtothesimple(Psalms119:130).

Universities like Harvard were institutions that produced leaders who built the greatest nation in

history.Yetnowtheyturnoutgraduatesbrilliantinabilitiesbutnotalwaysgreatincharacter.Howcanayoungmankeephimselfpure?42JesusovercametemptationbyholdingtotheScripturesthathestudied,internalized,andobeyed.43TheWordofGodwashiscompassfordeterminingrightandgood.Itshapedhischaracter.Itgavehimthestrengthtorefuseshortcutstomeethisneeds.Itenabledhimtorefusetosellhissoultothedevil.44ForJesus,asforthepsalmist,God’sWordwasthelampforhisfeetandthelightforhispath.45The

Bibleisnotmerelyahandbookofprivatepiety.ItistheveryfoundationofWesterncivilization.

AVISIONOFNATIONALRESURRECTION

The Bible prepared colonial Americans for liberty because it taught the truth of God’s redemptiveintervention in history. God liberated a bunch of Hebrew slaves and transformed them into a mightynation.TheOldTestamentdescribesthestruggleoftwelvetribestobecomeonenation.GloriousreignsofDavidandSolomonwerefollowedbypolitical tyrannythat inflamedlatent tribalismandsplit thenation.TheIsraelites’rejectionofGodledtotheirapparentrejectionbyGod.Hepunishedtheirintellectual,

moral,religious,andpoliticalcorruptionbydestroyingbothnations—IsraelandJudah.OnAugust14,586BC,GoddestroyedhisowntempleandJerusalem,sendinghischosenpeopleintoexileinBabylon.ManyJewsthoughtthattheirsunhadfinallyset.Theysawnohopefortheirnation’sresurrection.TheprophetJeremiahlamented:

Howlonelysitsthecitythatwasfullofpeople!Howlikeawidowhasshebecome,shewhowasgreatamongthenations!Shewhowasaprincessamongtheprovinceshasbecomeaslave.46

ThetribesthatlosttheirfaithintheirScripturesalsolosttheirhopeanddisappearedfromthecanvasof

history.ThosethatkepttheirfaithalivebecamethemodelforthepresentstateofIsrael.AfterdestroyingJerusalem,NebuchadnezzartooktheprophetEzekieltoBabylonasacaptive.Ezekiel’speoplewerelikethefishinouropeningparable.*Theybelievedthattheirnationwasdeadandtheywerelikedryboneswithnofuture.Ezekiel,however,soughtGodandinternalizedthedivinescroll.47Inadramaticvision,GodthenaskedEzekiel:

“Sonofman,cantheseboneslive?”…Thenhesaidtome,“Sonofman,thesebonesarethewholehouseofIsrael.Behold,theysay,‘Ourbonesaredriedup,andourhopeislost;wearecleancutoff.’Thereforeprophesy,andsaytothem,ThussaystheLordGOD:Behold,Iwillopenyourgravesandraiseyoufromyourgraves,Omypeople.AndIwillbringyouintothelandofIsrael.AndyoushallknowthatIamtheLORD,whenIopenyourgraves,andraiseyoufromyourgraves,Omypeople.AndIwillputmySpiritwithinyou,andyoushalllive,andIwillplaceyouinyourownland.ThenyoushallknowthatIamtheLORD;Ihavespoken,andIwilldoit,declarestheLORD.”48

ThefulfillmentofEzekiel’sprophecyandIsrael’sgreatawakeningbeganwhenthePersianemperorCyrusconqueredBabylonandcamefacetofacewithDaniel’sknowledgeofGod,nationalism,andobedience

offaith,discussedintheAppendix.Againsttheking’sownfeelingsDanielwasthrownintothelion’sden.Hismiraculousdeliveranceresultedinthekingissuinghisrevolutionaryproclamationin538BC:

ThussaysCyruskingofPersia,“TheLORD,theGodofheaven,hasgivenmeallthekingdomsoftheearth,andhehaschargedmetobuildhimahouseatJerusalem,whichisinJudah.Whoeverisamongyouofallhispeople,maytheLORDhisGodbewithhim.Lethimgoup.”49

ThisbeganthefulfillmentofIsaish’sprophecy:

Yoursunwillneversetagain,andyourmoonwillwanenomore;theLordwillbeyoureverlastinglight,andyourdaysofsorrowwillend.Thenwillallyourpeopleberighteousandtheywillpossessthelandforever.(Isaish60:20–21NIV)

*page371–72

Appendix

THEBIBLE

ISITAFAXFROMHEAVEN?

InhisnovelTheDaVinciCode,DanBrownwrotethatsince“theBibledidnotarrivebyfaxfromheaven,”itcannotbetheWordofGod.1CanthepresidentoftheUnitedStatesofAmericauseaspeech-writertocrafthisStateoftheUnion

address? Can he have dozens of associates amend, rewrite, revise, and edit that speech? If, in anemergency,thepresidentaskedsomeoneelsetodeliverhisspeechtotheCongress,woulditstillbethepresident’sword?TheDaVinciCodeassumesthattheCreatorcannotdowhatapresidentcando.Worse,itassumesthat

sincetheCreatorcannotcommunicate,thehumanmindcannotknowthetruth.ItcreatesamythtoreviveGnostic/Tantricteachingthatwecanexperienceenlightenmentbysilencingourmindsthroughmysticalsex.DanBrownimplementsJosephCampbell’srecommendationthathavinglostitshopeoffindingtruth,theWestoughttoinventstoriestoimaginethemeaningofexistence.Brown’sheroalsoexaminessymbolshiddenbyfictionalmysticssuchasLeonardodaVinci,aRenaissanceRationalist,whoisturnedintoaGnosticMaster.Ifitistruethatwecannotknowwhatistrue,thenwhathappenswithAmerica’s1776Declarationof

Independence?TheFounderssaid,“Weholdthesetruthstobeself-evidentthatallmenarecreatedequalandareendowedbytheirCreatorwithcertainundeniablerights,thatamongthesearelife,libertyandthepursuitofhappiness.”Arethesetruthsself-evidenttothehumanmind?ApostmodernistwouldbeabsolutelyrightininsistingthattheDeclarationofIndependencewaswrong.

These“truths”arenot“self-evident.”Humanequality isnotself-evidentanywhere in theworld—noteveninAmerica.Womenandblackswerenot treatedasequal inAmerica.Equalitywasneverself-evidenttoHindusages.Forthem,inequalitywasself-evident.Theirquestionwas,whyarehumanbeingsbornunequal?HinduismtaughtthattheCreatormadepeopledifferent.Thehighercastesweremadefromhis head, shoulders, and belly, and the lower castes were made from his feet. The law of karmaaccentuated these basic differences. The Buddha did not believe in the Creator, but he accepted thedoctrineofkarmaasthemetaphysicalcausefortheinequalityofhumanbeings.Norwereunalienablerightsself-evidenttoRome.DuringJesus’trial,Pilate,Rome’sgovernorand

chiefjusticeoverIsrael,declared:“Ifindnobasisforachargeagainstthisman.”2PilatethensaidtoJesus,“Youwillnotspeaktome?DoyounotknowthatIhaveauthoritytoreleaseyouandauthoritytocrucifyyou?”3Waitaminute!Doyouhavethepowertocrucifysomeonewhomyoudeclaretobeinnocent?Isn’tit

self-evidenttoyouthathehasanunalienablerighttolife?OrtakethecaseoftheapostlePaul.AnumberofRomancommanders,judges,governors,andkings

triedhim.Everyoneagreedthathewasinnocent.Didanyonesethimfree?No,theykepthimimprisonedforyearstopleasehisaccusersandtrytoextractbribesfromhim.4Itwasnotself-evidenttoanyofthem

thatPaulhadanunalienablerighttoliberty.Equalityandhumanrightsarenotself-evidenttruths.Inhisoriginaldraft,ThomasJeffersonpenned,

“Weholdthesetruthstobesacredandunalienable.”Thatwas the truth.That’swhytheDeclarationgrounded the “unalienable” rights in the Creator rather than in the state. The most honest declarationwouldhavebeen,“Weholdthesetruthstobedivinelyrevealed.”RevelationisthereasonwhyAmericabelievedwhatsomeDeistsascribedto“commonsense.”Tobeprecise,thesetruthsappearedcommonsensetotheAmericanFoundersbecausetheirsensewasshapedbythecommonimpactoftheBible—evenifafewofthemdoubtedthattheBiblewasdivinelyrevealed.Doesallofthismatter?Yes,itisamatteroflifeanddeath.JesusandPaulwerehighlyrespectedpublicservants.Yeteven

theirliveswerenotsafeinaculturethathadlosttheverynotionoftruth.JesustoldPilatethathehadcometorevealtruth.5Whatanopportunity!Pilatecouldhavesaidtohisaccusers:“Ihavenevermetanyonewhoknewtruth.Nowthatyouhavebroughthimtome,Iwillkeephimatleastforawhiletolearnallabouttruth.”ButPilatehadnopatiencefor“nonsense.”HowcouldthiscarpenterknowtruthwhenthegreatestGreekphilosophersandLatinpoetswereclueless?ByPilate’stime,Europehadlosthopeofknowingtruthandeveninterestinseekingit.LikethepostmodernWesttoday,Pilatebelievedthatnooneknowstruth—notinanyrationalsensethatcouldbeexplainedinwords.TheGnosticswhotalkedabout“experiencing”mysticaltruthusedthesametypeofmythicalverbageasDanBrown.Andthisisfarfromatheoreticaldiscussion.Whathappens toaculture that iscluelessaboutwhat is true,good,andjust?Pilateansweredthat

questionwhenhedeclared:“Ihavethepowertocrucifyyouorsetyoufree.”Whenwebelievetruthisunknowable,werobitofanyauthority.Whatisleftisbrutepowerwieldingarbitraryforce.Whetherapersonoranethnicminorityisguiltyorinnocentbecomesirrelevant.Hisorherrighttolifedependsexclusivelyonthewhimsofwhoeverhaspower.Anynationthatrefusestoliveundertruthcondemnsitselftoliveundersinfulman.DanBrownisquiterightthattheBiblewasnotfaxedfromheaven.Itisverydifferentfromotherbooks

liketheQur’anthatclaimtobeinspired.Itusuallydoesnotusethephrase“theWordofGod”asotherancient and contemporary “revelations” do. For example, unlike the Prophet Muhammad, none of thewritersofthefourGospelsclaimtohavereceivedtheirinformationinaprophetictrancebyrevelationfromGodorfromanangel.NordotheGospelwritersclaimthataspiritentityusedthemaschannelsfor“automaticwriting.”Privaterevelationscannotgenerallybeconfirmedasdivinelyinspired.Theymaybesupernaturally

inspired,buthowwouldweknowiftheyarefromGodorfromthedevil,angels,ordemons?6MostbooksoftheBiblearenotrevelationsreceivedinasubjective,trancelikeexperience.7TheGospels,forexample,claimtobeobjectivepublictruth.TheybearcourageouswitnesstothepubliceventsofJesus’teaching, miracles, prophecies, crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension—witnessed by five hundredpeople.TheGospelwriters—“theevangelists”—challengedtheinterpretationsofJewishscholarshipanda brutal Roman state. They opened themselves to cross-examination. Matthew, Mark, and John gaveeyewitnessaccountsasevidencefor their truth.Lukedescribedhowhesystematicallyresearchedthefacts,carefullychecking themoutwitheyewitnesses.This isaveryhuman,scholarlywayofwritingindeed!CanmenrecordtheWordofGod?TheapostlePaulwrotetotheThessalonians:“WhenyoureceivedthewordofGod,whichyouheard

fromus,youaccepteditnotasthewordofmenbutaswhatitreallyis,thewordofGod.”8Documentedfulfillmentofearlierpropheciesprovidesstrongevidenceofwriterscommunicating“thewordofGod.”J. Barton Payne, for example, details 1,817 Bible predictions involving 8,352 predictive verses (27

percent of the Bible).9 Systematic fulfillment of short- and midterm prophecies have given strongencouragementthatthecanonreflectsthewordofGodasspokenbyprophets.CanthewordsofmenbetheWordofGod?Ill-informed critics assume that Christians believe the Bible because the Roman Catholic Church

councilsdeclareditwasGod’sWord.TherealityisthattheChurchbelievestheBiblebecauseJesuslivedanddied“inaccordancetothescriptures.”10TheGospelsmakeitclearthatJesusdidnothaveamartyrcomplex:hedidnotwanttodie.11Hecould

haveescapedarrestinthegardenofGethsemane.Infact,atthemomentofhisarrestPetergaveJesusanexcellentopportunitytoescapeintothedark,butJesusrebukedhim.12Jesuscouldalsohavesavedhislifeduringhistrial,forhisjudgesfoundhiminnocent.Insteadoftryingtosavehislife,Jesuslaiditdown.Andhediditforonereasonalone:sothat theScripturesmaybefulfilled.13WhydidJesus take theJewishScripturessoseriouslythathechosetodietofulfillthem?Scientistshavejustbeguntodiscoverawe-inspiringcommunicationthathappensincommunitiesofthe

singlecellcreatureswecallamoeba.14Wearefarfromfiguringoutwhylifeissoinseparablyrelatedtoinformationanditstransmission.Fromtheverybeginning,theHebrewScriptures(theOldTestament)revealaGodwhospeaks:“AndGodsaid,‘Lettherebelight,’andtherewaslight.”15ThustheJewishworldviewseeslanguageasfoundationaltoreality.WehumanbeingsspeakbecausewearemadeintheimageofaSpiritwhosaid,“Letusmakemaninourimage.”16Manbecamea“livingsoul”whenGodbreathedhisspirit(“breath”)intoabodyofclay.17Thus,humanlanguagehasbothspiritualandphysicalaspects.TheBibleteachesthatGodislove.Loveincludescommunication.BothOldandNewTestamentsteach

thatGodspeakstousbecausehelovesus.Hegaveusthegiftoflanguagesowemayknowandlovehimandoneanotherashischildren.Love,Jesustaught,wasthewholepointofdivinerevelation,thatis,communication.18IntheJudeo-Christianunderstanding,loveandlanguageareaspectsnotofchemistrybutof our psyche or soul. Our chemistry is designed to facilitate love, knowledge, communication, andworship.

JESUS,DANIEL,ANDTHEJEWISHSCRIPTURES

JesustreatedtheHebrewScripturesinthesamewayasdidtheHebrewprophet,Daniel,anadministratorinBabylon.DanielwasayoungcontemporaryoftheprophetJeremiahinwhoseday,manyprophetsclaimedto

receiverevelationsfromGod.TheprophetswhopredictedpeaceandprosperityforJerusalemenjoyedreligiousandpoliticalpatronage.Yettheirpropheciesturnedouttobefalse.Jeremiah,ontheotherhand,calledhisnationtorepentance.Otherwise,hesaid,GodwouldbringdoomanddestructionthroughtheBabylonians.Jeremiahwascondemnedfortreasonandalmostkilled,butsubsequenteventsprovedhimright.Daniel,therefore,tookJeremiah’spropheciesseriously.Decades after Jeremiah was gone, Daniel kept reading Jeremiah’s scrolls, even though Jeremiah’s

workwasnotyetintheJewishcanon.ThemoreDanielread,themoreconvincedhebecamethatsinceJeremiah’spredictionshadcometrue,hewasaprophetfromGod.19FinallyDanielbecamesoconvincedthatJeremiah’swordswereGod’swordsthathewaswillingtobethrownintoadenoflions.20Hereiswhathappened:JeremiahprophesiedthatJerusalemwouldberebuiltseventyyearsafteritsdestruction.21Thatwas

aboutthetimewhentheMedo-PersiancoalitiondefeatedBabylon.Jeremiah’sprophecy,inconjunctionwithdreamsofNebuchadnezzarandDanielhimself,helpedDanielunderstandthesignificanceofthatmomentousevent.Hebelieved“thewordoftheLORDtoJeremiahtheprophet”22andbegantoprayforthe

rebuildingofJerusalem.23Thenthekingwasdupedintoissuingadevastatingedict:Noonewastopraytoanygodexcepttothekingforthirtydays.Thepenaltyforviolationwasthelions’den!Daniel,bythenadministrator-in-chieffortheempire,knewthathisrivalshadengineeredthatedict

specificallytodestroyhim.Hehadtochoose.WouldhestopprayingforthedeadcityofJerusalemtosavehislife,orwouldhetrustJeremiah’swordsattheriskofhislife?The deeper question was, who was sovereign—God or the king? Daniel had no other basis for

disobeyingthekingandriskinghislifeexcepthisconfidencethatJeremiah’swordswereGod’swords.Godwassovereignoverhistory.GodhadusedBabylontodestroywickedJerusalemtofulfillthewordsspokenbynumerousprophets,beginningwithMoses.NowGodwasgoingtousethePersianemperortorebuild his temple, notwithstanding the schemes of Daniel’s rivals.24 Daniel believed Jeremiah’sprophecy.ThereforehekepthispracticeofopeninghiswindowstoJerusalemandprayingthreetimesaday.Daniel was arrested, tried, and thrown into the lions’ den. After a sleepless night, the king was

astonishedtodiscoverthatsomething—orrather,someone—hadkeptthelionsfromharmingDaniel.HismiraculousescapesomovedthekingthatheissuedanedictencouragingJewstoreturntobuildatempleforthelivingGodinJerusalemandprayfortheking!25AsDanieldid,Jesus treatedthewordsof theHebrewScripturesasGod’sWord.Helivedbythe

Scriptures,26 died, and was buried according to the Scriptures, and on the third day he rose again“according to the Scriptures”27 and his own prophecies.28 Jesus’ apostles, including Peter and Paul,followedJesusinteachingthattheHebrewScriptureswerewrittenbymenbutinspiredbyGod.29DidJesuslaydownhislifetofulfilltheScripturesbecausehewasbutafirst-centuryJewconditioned

byhisculture’smistakenviewoftheScriptures?OrwastheOldTestamenthisownWord?Inthatcase,Jesuswouldbe teaching the lesson thatJohnLockedrewfromit, that is, touseourgiftof languageresponsibly,tosaywhatwemeanandmeanwhatwesay,andtokeepourword,asGoddoes,whateverthecost.30EvenasuperficialreadingoftheGospelsissufficienttoshowaskepticthatJesus’culturerejectedhim

because he overturned their understanding of the Scriptures.31 He was anything but a product of hisculture.Hespokenotasanexegete,butassomeonewithauniqueauthoritytoexpoundGod’soriginalintentionbehindthewordsofScripture.32TheJewspersecutedJesusbecauseheclaimedtohavegreaterauthoritythanMoses,33whohadreceivedthe“verywordsofGod.”34

ISTHENEWTESTAMENTTHEWORDOFGOD?

TheepistletotheHebrewsexhortstheJewishfollowersoftheMessiahto“rememberyourleaders,whospokethewordofGodtoyou.”35Howcouldtheapostles’wordsberegardedas“thewordsofGod”?TheapostlesalreadybelievedthatGod’swordcreatedtheuniverse.36TheyhadseenJesus’wordsstill

thestorms,healthesick,andraisethedead.Jesusassuredthem:“ThewordsthatIsaytoyouIdonotspeakonmyownauthority,buttheFatherwhodwellsinmedoeshisworks.”37Hepromisedthatiftheywouldabideinhisword,theywouldknowthetruth,thetruthwouldsetthemfree,38andthattheirprayerswouldbeanswerediftheyremainedinhisword.39HavingseenJesus’wordsraiseseveralpeoplefromdeath,whatweretheapostlestodowithhisclaim

thatthedaywascomingwhenthedeadwouldhearhisvoice,andthosewhohearwouldriseagainandliveeternally?40Tomakemattersworse,theapostlesthoughttheMessiahwouldconquerRome,butJesuspredictedhe

wouldbecrucifiedandthreedayslaterberaisedagain.TheapostleswitnessedJesus’wordscometrue.TheirfirsthandexperiencesofChrist’sdeathandresurrectioncompelledthemtoconcludethatJesus’

wordswereGod’swords.Jesuswastheeternal,creativeWordofGod(logos)becomeflesh.41Jesushimself used the testimony of the Scriptures—more than his incredible miracles—as the proof of hisdivinity.42InhisprayertohisFather,Jesussaid,“ForIhavegiventhem[thedisciples]thewordsthatyougave

me.”43HebreathedhisSpiritupontheapostles,44assuringthemthattheHolySpiritwouldremindthemwhathehadtaughtthem45andwouldguidethemintoalltruth.46Jesusdidnotsendthemmerelytoteachandpreachwhattheyhadheardandseen.Healsogavethemauthoritytohealthesickandcastoutdemonswith their words.47 The apostles became the servants or “ministers of the word.”48 They devotedthemselves to “the ministry [service] of the word.”49 God’s Spirit confirmed the apostles’ words bysupernaturalsignsandwonders.50WhatwouldyouhavethoughtifyousawPeter’swordshealamanbornlame?51EvenunbelieverstreatedthewordsoftheapostlesasthewordsofGod.52Theapostles’contemporariesinterpretedthegrowthofthechurchasthegrowthofthewordofGod:

“AndthewordofGodcontinuedtoincrease,andthenumberofdisciplesmultiplied.”53FollowingJesus’example,theapostlessealedtheirwordswiththeirblood.Theydidnotstruggleforpersonalsurvival,becauseChrist’swordassuredthemoftheireternalsurvival.ContrarytoBiblecritics,suchasDanBrownandArunShourie,thechurchdidnotinventtheWordof

God:thechurchwas“builtonthefoundationoftheapostlesandtheprophets,”thatis,ontheNewandtheOldTestaments.54Ill-informedskepticsassumethattheBible—especiallytheNewTestament—wasdeemedtobethe

WordofGodinAD325bytheChurchCouncilofNicaea,whichcollatedthecanonofScripture.ThefollowingversesshowthatJesusbelievedthathismessagewasGod’sword.Hisapostlesbelievedthatwhat they were preaching was God’s word. Long before any church council met Christ’s originalcompanionsandfollowersinJerusalemacceptedtheapostles’wordsastheWordofGod,justastheThessalonianbelieversacceptedPaul’swordsastheWordofGod.HowcouldtheapostleJohnsaytohisreadersthattheyalreadyknewthetruthanddidnotneedanyone

(not even a church council) to determine for them the word of God?55 The first- and second-centurychurchalreadyknewwhichbookshadgenuineapostolicauthoritybehind them.Theydidnot requirecanonizationoftheapostles’writingsbyachurchcounciltobeginlayingdowntheirlivesfortheWordofGod.Theyhadbeenaffirmingtheirfaithinthesewritings,bychoosingmartyrdom,formorethantwohundredyearsbeforeConstantine.56The Old Testament canon existed before Jesus’ time. Canonization of the New Testament became

necessaryonlybecausespuriousbooksbegantoappearclaimingtohavebeenwrittenbytheoriginalapostles.CanonizationdidnotturnPaul’sepistlesintoGod’sword.Thepurposeofcanonizationwastorefutethespuriousworksasinauthentic,suchasthealleged“GospelofThomas”andthe“GospelofBarnabas.”ItisimportanttonotethatonlyonebookintheNewTestament,theRevelation(toJohn),claimstohave

been received supernaturally in visions, and this book met with the toughest scrutiny before beingincludedinthecanon.Abookwithasimilartitle,TheRevelationofPeter,wasrejected.Why?BecauseChristianity isaboutpublic truth,notaboutprivate,subjective,unverifiable,secret, inner,“religious”experience.PrivateintuitionmayindeedbefromGod,butithastobepubliclyauthenticatedbeforethepubliccanfollowit.TheRevelationofJohnwasincludedinthecanonpreciselybecauseitisnota“faxfromheaven.”John“saw,”“looked,”and“heard”certain thingsandthenwrotedownhiseyewitnessaccount—exactlyashedidinthegospelofJohn.57Thechurchcanonizedbookswithknownapostolicauthoritytoundercutthedeceptionofpower-hungry“religious”prophets,apostles,andmystics.TheauthorshipofRevelationhasbeendisputed,but it isclear that ifsomeoneother thanJohnthe

apostle forged the book in John’s name, then the forger would have made an effort to establish his

credentialsasanapostle.TheauthorofthebookofRevelationsimplystatesthathisnamewasJohn,andheexpectstheintendedreaderstorecognizehisapostolicauthority.Thepointisthis:thechurchdoesnotbelievetheScripturesbecausetheCouncilofNicaeacanonized

some books. Roman Catholics acknowledge that Church councils have sometimes been wrong. TheCouncilofNicaeadidnotcreatetheBible.TheprocessofcanonizationoftheNewTestamentbeganwithaheretic,Marcion(AD90–160),whoidentifiedawidelyacceptedcanoninordertochallengeit.Inresponsetosuchattempts,thechurchaffirmedtheNewTestamentcanoninordertorepudiateheresies.Inclusioninthecanonwasnotdependentonunverifiable“divineinspiration”butonverifiablematters.

Thefirstwasapostolicauthority, includingimpliedapostolicauthorityas inthecaseof thebooksofMark,Luke,Acts,andtheepistletoHebrews.EquallyimportantwastheologicalharmonywiththeOldTestamentcanonthatJesusconfirmedastheWordofGod.TheGnosticforgeriesdidclaimapostolicauthorship,buttheydidnotandcouldnotclaimharmonywiththeOldTestament.Forexample,John’sRevelationisaverydeliberateunpackingofthebookofDaniel.InRevelation5,forexample,theLambofGodreceivesthetitledeedoftheearththathadbeenpromisedtotheMessiahinPsalm2andPsalm110.ThechaptersthatfollowbecomethekeytoexplaininghowJesuswastheMessiahprophesiedbytheOldTestament.

CANTHENATURALALSOBESUPERNATURAL?

ThechurchfathersknewthatfalliblemenhadauthoredthebooksoftheNewTestament.TheCouncilofNicaeawrestledwithaworldviewissueraisedbyGnosticism:Couldthenatural(material/physical)besimultaneouslyspiritual,nonmaterial,supernatural,andgood?TheGnosticspresupposedthatthenaturalrealmwasevil.Therefore,theyconcludedthathumanwords

cannotbeGod’sword;theChristSpiritcouldnotbecomeincarnate;Christcouldnothavediedonthecross;itwastheevil,materialbodyofaman—Jesus—thatwascrucified;theChristSpiritwaslaughingatthefollyofhisenemiesastheywerecrucifyingJesus,thinkingthattheywerekillingtheChrist.TheCouncilofNicaearejectedthisGnosticworldviewinfavoroftheOldTestamentteachingthatthe

materialworld—thetangible,physicalexpressionofGod’swords—wasgood.Man(maleandfemale)reallywasmadeinGod’simage;thehumanbodywasgood.Godcouldbecomeman,andourphysicalbodiescanbe,andoughttobecome,thetempleoftheHolyGod.58JustasSatancouldenterJudastodoevil,59God’sSpiritcananddoesusehumanbeingstospeakhis

words60anddohiswill.Theworkandwordsofmenandwomencanbehuman,satanic,ordivine.JustasJesuscouldbefullymanandfullyGod,soman’swordscouldbeGod’swords.Ifapresidentcantakeaspeechwriter’swordsandmakethemhisown,whycouldn’tPaulcommunicateGod’swords?Hecan,justasanambassadorcanspeaktheking’swords.61 It isabsurdtoclaimthatJesuswasthegreatestprophet,asDanBrownimplies,andtosimultaneouslyclaimthattheScriptureJesusbelievedin,totheextentoflayingdownhislife,wasmerelyahumanhoax.Thechurchfathersdidnotunderstandthemysteryofhumanlanguageanymorethanwedo.Nordidthey

conclude that the New Testament was God’s Word based on abstract philosophical arguments. TheyreliedoneyewitnesseswhosawthewordsofJesusandhisapostlesmakethelametowalkandtheblindto see, drive out demons, and raise the dead back to life. The Holy Spirit confirmed Jesus’ and theapostles’wordswithsignsandwonders,justasGod’ssupernaturalactshadconfirmedMoses’words.62Futuregenerationsmayunderstandlanguagebetterthanwedo.Contemporarymedicinehasjustbeguntostudythehealingpowerofhumanwords.However,atpresent,evenoursciencefictioniscluelessabouthowwordscouldpossiblybringadeadpersonbacktolifeor,asEinsteinmarveled,howourmindsandwordscouldcomprehendthephysicaluniverse.*

Rome’s collapse meant that Europe lost its soul—the source of its civilizational authority—anddescendedintothe“DarkAges.”TheBiblewasthepowerthatrevivedEurope.EuropeansbecamesoenthralledwithGod’sWordthattheyrejectedtheirsacredmythstohearGod’sWord,studyit,internalizeit,speakit,andpromoteittobuildthemodernworld.Atthedawnofthetwenty-firstcentury,theWestisagainlosingitssoul.WillitrelapseintoanewdarkageorhumbleitselfbeforetheWordoftheAlmightyGod?

Thefollowingversesdemonstrate that theNewTestamentviewedJesusandhisapostles’ teaching—speakingandwriting—as“theWordofGod”centuriesbeforechurchcouncils.

ON ONE OCCASION, WHILE THE CROWD WAS PRESSING IN ON HIM TO HEAR THE WORD OF GOD, HE WASSTANDINGBYTHELAKEOFGENNESARET.(LUKE5:1)

FORHEWHOMGODHASSENTUTTERSTHEWORDSOFGOD,FORHEGIVESTHESPIRITWITHOUTMEASURE.(JOHN3:34)

THEWORDSTHATISAYTOYOUIDONOTSPEAKONMYOWNAUTHORITY,BUTTHEFATHERWHODWELLSINME.(JOHN14:10)

FORIHAVEGIVENTHEM[THEAPOSTLES]THEWORDSTHATYOU[FATHER]GAVEME.(JOHN17:8)

THEY WERE ALL FILLED WITH THE HOLY SPIRIT AND CONTINUED TO SPEAK THE WORD OF GOD WITHBOLDNESS.(ACTS4:31)

ITISNOTRIGHTTHATWESHOULDGIVEUPPREACHINGTHEWORDOFGODTOSERVETABLES.(ACTS6:2)

ANDTHEWORDOFGODCONTINUEDTOINCREASE.(ACTS6:7)

NOWWHENTHEAPOSTLESATJERUSALEMHEARDTHATSAMARIAHADRECEIVEDTHEWORDOFGOD,THEYSENTTOTHEMPETERANDJOHN.(ACTS8:14)

THEGENTILESALSOHADRECEIVEDTHEWORDOFGOD.(ACTS11:1)

BUTTHEWORDOFGODINCREASEDANDMULTIPLIED.(ACTS12:24)

THEYPROCLAIMEDTHEWORDOFGODINTHESYNAGOGUESOFTHEJEWS.(ACTS13:5)

SERGIUSPAULUS,AMANOFINTELLIGENCE,WHOSUMMONEDBARNABASANDSAULANDSOUGHTTOHEARTHEWORDOFGOD.(ACTS13:7)

ANDPAULANDBARNABASSPOKEOUTBOLDLY,SAYING,“ITWASNECESSARYTHATTHEWORDOFGODBESPOKEN FIRST TO YOU.”SINCE YOU THRUST IT ASIDE AND JUDGE YOURSELVES UNWORTHY OF ETERNALLIFE,BEHOLD,WEARETURNINGTOTHEGENTILES.(ACTS13:46)

ANDHESTAYEDAYEARANDSIXMONTHS,TEACHINGTHEWORDOFGODAMONGTHEM.(ACTS18:11)

FORWEARENOT,LIKESOMANY,PEDDLERSOFGOD’SWORD,BUTASMENOFSINCERITY,ASCOMMISSIONEDBYGOD,INTHESIGHTOFGODWESPEAKINCHRIST.(2CORINTHIANS2:17)

WEREFUSETOPRACTICECUNNINGORTOTAMPERWITHGOD’SWORD.(2CORINTHIANS4:2)

IBECAMEAMINISTER…TOMAKETHEWORDOFGODFULLYKNOWN.(COLOSSIANS1:25)

LONGAGO,ATMANYTIMESANDINMANYWAYS,GODSPOKETOOURFATHERSBYTHEPROPHETS,BUTINTHESELASTDAYSHEHASSPOKENTOUSBYHISSON.(HEBREWS1:1–2)

THE REVELATION OFJESUS CHRIST, WHICHGOD GAVE HIM TO SHOW TO HIS SERVANTS THE THINGS THATMUSTSOONTAKEPLACE.HEMADEITKNOWNBYSENDINGHISANGELTOHISSERVANTJOHN,WHOBOREWITNESSTOTHEWORDOFGOD.(REVELATION1:1–2)

ANDTHEANGELSAIDTOME,“WRITE…THESEARETHETRUEWORDSOFGOD.(REVELATION19:9)

AND HE SAID TO ME, “THESE WORDS ARE TRUSTWORTHY AND TRUE. AND THE LORD, THE GOD OF THESPIRITSOFTHEPROPH-ETS,HASSENTHISANGELTOSHOWHISSERVANTSWHATMUSTSOONTAKEPLACE.(REVELATION22:6)

*Seechapter4.

NOTES

FOREWORD1.AlanBloom,TheClosingoftheAmericanMind:HowHigherEducationHasFailedDemocracyandImpoverishedtheSoulsof

Today’sStudents(NY:Simon&Schuster,1987),58.2.RichardRortyandGianniVattimo,TheFutureofReligion(NY:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2005),72.3.C.S.Lewis,SurprisedByJoy(NY:Harcourt,Brace,andWorld,1955),207–208.

PROLOGUE1. Missionaries in India: Continuities, Changes, Dilemmas (New Delhi: ASA Publications, 1994) and Harvesting Our Souls:

Missionaries,TheirDesigns,TheirClaims(NewDelhi:ASAPublications,2000).2.Boththebooksareavailablefromwww.RevelationMovement.com.

PARTIEpigraph:H.GradyDavis,“HistoryoftheWorld,”http://all-history.org/reli-gions17.html(accessedDecember5,2010).

CHAPTERONEEpigraph: George Orwell’s “Notes on the Way” was first published inTimeandTide, March 30–April 6, 1940. It is reprinted inCollected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell (Harcourt, Brace & World, 1968). See http://orwell.ru/library/articles/notes/e/e_notew.htm.

1.“Endless,Nameless”onNevermind(LosAngeles:GeffenRecords,1991).ThissongisahiddentrackattheendofsomecopiesoftheCD.2.TheRollingStoneeditors,Cobain(Boston:Little,BrownandCompany,1994),128.See“SuicidalTendencies”byDianaGrains,128–32.3.Ibid.4.CharlesR.Cross,HeavierThanHeaven(NY:Hyperion,2001),15.5.Freud’ssecondtopographyunderminesthemodern,CartesianunderstandingofselfhoodthatmostintheWestunderstandby“self.”Freud’s

selfisdecentered.6.BandAC/DC.7. For a simple summary see Connie Zweig’s essay, “The Death of the Self in a Postmodern World” in TheTruthAboutTheTruth:

DeconfusingandRe-ConstructingthePostmodernWorld,ed.WalterTruettAnderson(NY:PenguinPutnam,1995),145–150.8.RollingStone,November3,2005,54.9.KurtCobain,Journals(NY:RiverheadBooks,2003),108–09.10.StevenBlush,AmericanHardcore:ATribalHistory(LosAngeles;NY:FeralHouse,2001),9.11.AlyricbyAgentOrange,“LivinginDarkness,”AgentOrange(Warner/Elektra/Atlantic,1981).12.OnFebruary25,2009,theBureauofDemocracy,HumanRightsandLaboursubmittedthe2008HumanRightsReportforTurkmenistan:

“Thegovernmentdemonstratedlittleornosupportfornon-Turkmenmusic,butclassicalmusicwastaughtandperformedthroughoutthecountry.Thepreviouslybannedgovernment-supportedsymphonyorchestrawasreestablishedattheNationalCulturalCenterandbeganmonthlyconcertsofTurkmenandworldclassicalmusic.Thepresidentdecreedthatthecircusreopen,andthefirstoperaperformancetook place in June. Traditional local music, which had not been performed for years, was played in concerts and social events.”http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/sca/119142.htm(accessedJanuary16,2011).

13.Ephesians5:18–20NIV.14.Forabiblicaldescriptionofmusicinheaven,pleaseseeRevelation5:7–9,14:1–3,15:1–4.15. “Tibetan Buddhist Monk Nominated for Grammy award,” 3 February 2006, International Campaign for Tibet,

http://www.savetibet.org/media-center/ict-news-reports/tibetan-buddhist-monk-nominated-grammy-award(accessedDecember4,2010).16.Job38:4–7.17.J.R.R.Tolkien,TheSilmarillion(BostonandNY:HoughtonMifflinCompany,2001),15–16.Tolkien’sfictionalpassageisanexpression

oftheBible’steachinginJob38,John1,andthebookofRevelation.18.MartinLuther’sForewordtoGeorgRhau’sSymphoniaeLucundae,acollectionofchoralemotetspublishedin1538,reprintedinFrom

LiturgyandHymns,ed.UlrichS.Leupold; trans.PaulZellerStrodach;vol.53ofLuther’sWorks, American Edition, ed. JaroslavPelikanandHelmutT.Lehmann(Philadelphia:Fortress,1965).

19.MartinLuther,TheTableTalkofMartinLuther,trans.anded.WilliamHazlitt(London:H.G.Bohn,1857),340.20.Forexample,see1Samuel19:18–24or1Chronicles25:1–6.“Davidandthechiefsoftheservicealsosetapartfortheservicethesonsof

Asaph,andofHeman,andofJeduthun,whoprophesiedwithlyres,withharps,andwithcymbals.Thelistofthosewhodidtheworkandoftheirdutieswas:OfthesonsofAsaph…whoprophesiedunderthedirectionoftheking.OfJeduthun,thesonsofJeduthun…whoprophesiedwiththelyreinthanksgivingandpraisetotheLORD.OfHeman,thesonsofHeman…theking’sseer,accordingtothe

promiseofGodtoexalthim…TheywereallunderthedirectionoftheirfatherinthemusicinthehouseoftheLORDwithcymbals,harps,andlyresfortheserviceofthehouseofGod.”

21.Acts2:30.22.1Corinthians14:1.23.WilfridMellers,BachandtheDanceofGod(Oxford:OxfordUniv.Press,1981),82.24.ChristophWolff,JohannSebastianBach:TheLearnedMusician(NY:Norton,2000),8.25.UlrichMeyer,BiblicalQuotationsandAllusionsinCantataLibrettiofJohannSebastianBach(London:ScarecrowPress,1997),

177–216.BiblereferencesthatBachquotedoralludedtoinhiscompositionsandwritings.26.Romans8:28.27.JacquesBarzun,FromDawntoDecadence:1500tothePresent,500yearsofWesternCulturalLife(NY:HarperCollins,2000).His

conceptof“decadence”isexplainedinhisintroduction.28.StanleyFish,whoretiredastheDeanoftheCollegeofLiberalArtsandSciencesattheUniv.ofIllinoisatChicagoarguedinanarticle,

“WhyWeBuilttheIvoryTower,”NYTimes,May21,2004,thattheUniv.shouldnoteventrytoteachmoralityorgoodcitizenship.Hewrote,“Performingacademicworkresponsiblyandatthehighestlevelisajobbigenoughforanyscholarandforanyinstitution.And,asIlookaround,itdoesnotseemtomethatweacademicsdothatjobsowellthatwecannowtakeituponourselvestodoeveryoneelse’sjobtoo.Weshouldlooktothepracticesinourownshop,narrowlyconceived,beforewesetouttoaltertheentireworldbyformingmoralcharacter,orfashioningdemocraticcitizens,orcombatingglobalization,orembracingglobalization,oranythingelse.”

29.Ibid.QuotedbyOrwell.

PARTII

CHAPTERTWO1.SriJayaprakashNarayanissometimesreferredtoasa“secondGandhi.”2.Biogasdigestersconvertwastematerialsintomethanegasforenergy.Ourbio-gasdigester,installedontheKadarifarm,wasthefirstinthe

area.TheGandhiAshraminChhatarpurpartneredwithustobringinexpertstoteachlocalmasonshowtomakeone,andpeasantshowtomaintainthem.

3.Exodus3.4.Genesis15:1NKJV.5.2Corinthians1:3.6.MystudyofpopularIndianguruswaspublishedbyVikasPublishingHouse(Delhi).IthadbeenserializedbyIndia’sforemostweekly,

Sunday.7.Romans13:1–2;1Peter2:13–17.SoonIdiscoveredtheBibleprovidedtheologicalgroundsforcivildisobedience.8.AssociationforComprehensiveRuralAssistance(ACRA)wasregisteredasanonprofitorganizationin1977withDr.D.W.Mategaonker

asthechairmanofanine-membergoverningbody.IservedastheCEOandoperateditoutofourhome.Otherswhojoinedusbecameanextensionofourfamily—hencea“community.”Aninnercore,intheory,madeday-to-daydecisions.Inpractice,however,thewholecommunitymeteverymorningforprayersandparticipatedinmakingdecisionsthataffectedeveryone.

9.Matthew7:7.10.James4:2.11.Acts4:19.ThefirstchapterofmybookTruthandSocialReformdiscussesabiblicaltheologyofcivildisobedienceasitwasforgedinthis

confrontation.12. The Lord Jesus was on a confrontation course with the socio-religio-political establishment of his time. This was to culminate in his

crucifixion.Therefore,heaskedallwhowishedtofollowhimtotakeuptheircrossandbepreparedformartyrdom.See,forexample,Luke9:23–26.

CHAPTERFOUR1.John8:12.2.HelenKeller,TheStoryofMyLife(NY:GrossetandDunlap,1905),23–24.3.AlbertEinstein,“PhysicsandReality,”JournaloftheFranklinInstitute,vol.221,issue3,March1936,349–382.4.Genesis2:9.5.Isaiah66:2NIV.6.Genesis12:3,18:18,22:18,26:4,etc.7.Revelation22:2.8.Threeofmybooksstudythelastpoint:(1)WilliamCareyandtheRegenerationofIndia,(2)MissionaryConspiracy:Letters toa

PostmodernHindu,and(3)India:TheGrandExperiment.

PARTIIIEpigraph:TheBrokenCovenant:AmericanCivilReligioninTimeofTrial(NY:CrossroadBooks,1975),12–13.

CHAPTERFIVE1.Proverbs31:8–9NIV.

2.BhagavadGitaII.22.3.BhagavadGitaII.12–13.4.Genesis39–41.5.ScholarsdisputetheexacttitleofOrationontheDignityofManbyGiovanniPicoDellaMirandola(1463–94).6.HenryThode,FranzvonAssisiunddieAnfangederKunstderRenaissanceinItalien(Berlin:G.Grote,1885).7.PaulSabatier,ViedeS.Françoisd’Assise(Paris:Fischbacher,1894).8.WallaceK.Ferguson,“TheReinterpretationoftheRenaissance,”Facetsof theRenaissance: theArensbergLectures (LosAngeles:

HarperCollins,1959).9.CharlesTrinkaus,InOurImageandLikeness(London:Constable,1970).Anotherimportantscholartodevelopthislineofthinkingwas

CharlesNorrisCochrane,whosestudyChristianityandClassicalCulture(Oxford:OxfordUniv.Press,1940)demonstratedthattheWesternconfidenceinthehumanabilitytochangehistoryoriginatedintheworkoftheChurchFatherssuchasSt.Augustine.Mostimportant,thesementaughtthebiblicalgroundsforcritiquingtheclassicalfaithinFortuneandFateasdivineentities.

10.Genesis1:26.11.Trinkaus,InOurImageandLikeness,vol.1,3.12.Genesis1:1.13.Trinkaus,InOurImageandLikeness,510.14.QuotedbyTrinkaus,InOurImageandLikeness,510.15.Hebrews1:7,14NIV.16.Trinkaus,InOurImageandLikeness,37.17.Ibid.18.FrancescoPetrarca,OnReligiousLeisure(DeOtioReligioso)(ca.AD1357),ed.andtrans.bySusanS.Schearer(NY:ItalicaPress,

2002),60–61.19.MarkKrameretal.TheBlackBookofCommunism:Crimes,Terror,Repression(Cambridge:HarvardUniv.Press,1999).20.Exodus3.21.RichardHell,HotandCold(NY:powerHouse,2001).22.WesleyJ.Smith,ARatIsaPigIsaDogIsaBoy:TheHumanCostoftheAnimalRightsMovement(NY:EncounterBooks,2010).23.GeneEdwardVeithandMarvinOlasky,PostmodernTimes:aChristianGuidetoContemporaryThoughtandCulture(Wheaton,IL:

CrosswayBooks,1994),76.24.“ZooinCopenhagenExhibitsNewPrimates(FullyClothed),”NYTimes,August29,1996.

CHAPTERSIX1.E.Haldeman-Julius,TheMeaningofAtheism,LittleBlueBook#1597(Girard,KS:Haldeman-JuliusCompany).2.GeorgeHolmes,ed.,TheOxfordHistoryofMedievalEurope(Oxford:OxfordUniv.Press,1992),1.3.EdwardGrant,GodandReasonintheMiddleAges(Cambridge:CambridgeUniv.Press,2001),1.4.L.C.Goodrich,“RevolvingBookCaseinChina,”HarvardJournalofAsiaticStudies,VII(1942),154.5.LynnWhiteJr.,MedievalReligionandTechnology(Berkeley:Univ.ofCaliforniaPress,1978),47.6. See, for example, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, ScienceofBeingandArtofLiving:TranscendentalMeditation (NY: New American

Library,1963[copyright],1968[firstprinting]),294ff.7.A.L.Basham,TheWonderThatWasIndia,3rded.(NewDelhi:Rupa,2000),269–270.8.RaoulMortley,FromWordtoSilence(Bonn:PeterHansteinVerlagGmbH,1986).9.Ibid.,33–34.10.Ibid.,160.11.Ibid.,43.12.John14:6.13.John18:37.14.John1:1,14.15.Mortley,FromWordtoSilence,50.16.Ibid.,50–51.17.QuotedbyCochraneinChristianityandClassicalCulture(Oxford:OxfordUniv.Press,1940),401.18.Ibid.,37.19.EdwardGrant,GodandReason,29.20.Ibid.,39.21.Ibid.,41.22.Forexample,John17:3;Colossians2:3.23.JohnofDamascus,TheFountofKnowledge,fromWritings,trans.FredericH.Chase,Jr.,inTheFathersoftheChurchseries,vol.37

(NY:FathersoftheChurch,1958),7.24.DavidS.Landes,TheWealthandPovertyoftheNations(NY:Norton,1998),139.25.RevisionisthistorianEamonDuffyillustratesthisinhiscontroversialstudy,TheStrippingoftheAltars:TraditionalReligioninEngland

1400–1580(NewHaven:YaleUniv.Press,1992).AsaCatholic,DuffyholdsHenry’smoveresponsibleforpromotingfactionalismanddivision.“[HenryVIII]hadhopedthattheEnglishBiblewouldberead‘withmeekness…andnottomaintainerroneousopinions.’Instead,thepeopledisputed‘arrogantly’inthechurches,alehouses,andtaverns,andslanderedeachother‘aswellbywordaswriting,onepartofthemcallingtheotherpapist,theotherpartcallingtheotherheretic,’”422.

26.See,forexample,JaredM.Diamond’sGuns,GermsandSteel:TheFatesofHumanSocieties(NY:Norton,1997).

27.CedricB.Cowing,TheGreatAwakeningand theAmericanRevolution:ColonialThought in the18thCentury (Chicago: RandMcNally,1971),72.

28.Isaiah11:2.29.Proverbs1:7.30.Landes,WealthandPovertyoftheNations,317.31.Ibid.32.Ibid.33.AcharyaRajneesh,BeyondandBeyond(Bombay:JeevanJagrutiKendra,1970),15.

CHAPTERSEVEN1.“TheHistoricalRootsofOurEcologicalCrisis,”Science,vol.155,1967,1203–07.2.LynnWhiteJr.,MedievalReligionandTechnology:CollectedEssays(Berkeley:Univ.ofCaliforniaPress,1978),22.3.DavidS.Landes,RevolutioninTime(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniv.Press,2000),39–44.4.Ibid.,20.5.Histhesisispresentedmorepopularlyinthechapter“TheChristianExpectationoftheEndTimeandtheIdeaofTechnicalProgress,”inhis

bookEvolutionandChristianHope:Man’sConceptoftheFuturefromtheEarlyFatherstoTeilharddeChardin(NY:GardenCity,1966).

6.Genesis2:15.7.ForamoreexpandedsummaryofBenz’sview,seeLynnWhiteJr.,MedievalReligionandTechnology,236–37.8.2Thessalonians3:10.9.CardinalGasquet,trans.,TheRuleofSt.Benedict(London:MedievalLibrary,1925),chapter48.10.Genesis1:3—2:2.11.Genesis3:17–19.12.White,MedievalReligionandTechnology,22.13.Ibid.,131.14.Barzun,FromDawntoDecadence,600–601.15.White,MedievalReligionandTechnology,22.16.ForfurtherdiscussionseeAngelsintheArchitecturebyDouglasJones(Moscow,ID:CanonPress,1998).Theauthorsarguethatthe

DarkAgesweren’t“dark”butwereactuallyabeginningofaculturemoldedbytheBible.CriticsmayfindsomeromanticizingoftheDarkAges,buttheauthorsdobringupfascinatingpointsgenerallyignoredbyscholars.

17.LynnWhiteJr.,“TechnologyandInventionintheMiddleAges,”Speculum:AJournalofMedievalStudies(April,1940),141–159.18.Ibid.,291.19.Ibid.,245.20.HollywoodactressShirleyMacLaineeffectivelyintroducedtheIndianconceptoftimetoWesternreaders.Seeherconceptofeternal

“Nowness”inherbookGoingWithin(NY:BantamBooks,1989).21.Genesis2:7.22.Acts18.3.23.2Thessalonians3:10.24.QuotedbyPhilipMason,TheMenWhoRuledIndia(Calcutta:Rupa,1992),12.25.StanleyWolpert,ANewHistoryofIndia,5thed.(NY:OxfordUniv.Press,1997),155–56.26. Rodney Stark, For the Glory of God: How Monotheism Led to Reformations, Science, Witch-hunts, and the End of Slavery

(Princeton:PrincetonUniv.Press,2003),359,360,244.

PARTIV

CHAPTEREIGHT1.JonathanSwift,“CadenusandVanessa,”inJonathanSwift:TheCompletePoemsPatRogers,ed.(NewHaven:YaleUniv.Press,1983),

149,lns.740–41.2.SeeJacquesEllul,SubversionofChristianity,trans.GeoffreyW.Bromiley(GrandRapids:Eerdmans,1986),chapter5.3.Forafirsthandaccountof theatrocitiesof theconquistadors,seeBartolomédeLasCasas,TheDevastationof the Indies:ABrief

Account, trans. Herma Briffault (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1992). While there were significant movements in SpainresistingtheabuseoftheWestIndians,themomentumoftheconquistadorsproveddifficulttostop.

4.LordCurzon in India:BeingaSelection fromHisSpeechesasViceroyandGovernor-Generalof India,1898–1905 (London:MacMillan,1906),393.

5.SeemybooksIndia:TheGrandExperiment;MissionaryConspiracy:LetterstoaPostmodernHindu;andWilliamCareyandtheRegenerationofIndia.

6.ThenewexpandededitioniscalledTruthandTransformation:AManifestoforAilingNations(Seattle,WA:YWAM,2009).7.Luke9:23–24.8.Iinheriteda.22riflefrommymother-in-law.Thepolicerefusedtogivemealicense,soIcouldnotkeepitformorethanafewmonths.For

awhile,Ialsohadanair-pistol,whichwasgoodforchasingmonkeys.Ourmostdreadedweapon,however,wasRuth’shair-dryer—believedtobealasergun!

9.WilliamBlake,“AuguriesofInnocence,”line97.10.SidneyPainter,FrenchChivalry:ChivalricIdeasandPracticesinMedievalFrance (Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsPress,1940),150.

Mostoftheinformationonpages129–31onthemedievalherocomesfromthisbook.11.RolandBainton,HereIStand(England:LionPublishing,1978),174.12.Ibid.,181–82.13.Matthew20:27–28.14.1Corinthians1–3.15.Hebrews2:14–15.16.John15:13.

CHAPTERNINE1.John18:37.2.John14:6.3.Matthew22:21.4.Matthew26:52.5.St.Cyprian,Letters:1–81 (AD249–58)inTheFathersof theChurch, vol. 5, trans. Sister Rose Bernard Donna (Washington, DC:

CatholicUniv.ofAmericaPress,1964),43.6.Forexamplesofsuchabuseoftheallegedpowertograntindulgence,seeHenryC.Sheldon’sHistoryoftheChristianChurch,vol.2,

320–21.7.1Peter2:9.8.The Catholic Encyclopedia, eds. Charles G. Herbermann, Edward A. Pace, Thomas J. Shahan, Condé B. Pallen, John J. Wynne,

“DonationofConstantine,”(NY:TheEncyclopediaPress,1913),119,says,“Thisdocument iswithoutadoubtaforgery,fabricatedsomewherebetweentheyears750–850.”AlthoughJohnWycliffeandothercriticsofRomehadcalledthelegitimacyofthisdocumentintoquestionbeforeValla’scritique,itwastheworkofVallathatprovedindisputablythedocumentwasindeedillegitimate.

9.DavidDaniell,WilliamTyndale:ABiography(NewHaven:YaleUniv.Press,1994),181–185.10.QuotedbyHenryC.Sheldon,HistoryoftheChristianChurch,vol.2,(Peabody,MA:HendricksonPublishers,1988),411.11.Nietzschewasmuchclosertothetruthwhenhewrote,“Christianity,sprungfromtheJewishrootsandcomprehensibleonlyasagrowthon

thissoil,representsthecountermovementtoanymoralityofbreeding,orrace,orprivilege:itisanti-Aryanreligionparexcellence.”From“TheTwilightoftheIdols,”inThePortableNietzsche,trans.WalterKaufmann(NY:VikingPress,1954),504–505.

12.AlisterMcGrath,IntheBeginning:TheStoryofKingJamesBible(London:Hodder&Stoughton,2001),19.13.Ibid.,20.14.DouglasC.Wood,TheEvangelicalDoctor(Herts,UK:EvangelicalPress,1984),82.15.ChristopherdeHamel,TheBook:AHistoryoftheBible(London:PhaidonPress,2001),168–169.16.Hebrews11:25.17.Luke7:22.18.DesideriusErasmus,“TheParaclesis”inChristianHumanismandtheReformation:SelectedWritingsofErasmus,ed.andtrans.John

C.Olin(NYandEvanston:HarperandRow,1965),97.19.“Thereweremorethan50editionsbetween1522and1529alone,notincludingfurthereditionsofseparateportionsoftheNewTestament.

Thepeakwasin1524,whentherewere47differenteditionsofpartsofLuther’stranslation.”(deHamel,TheBook,232).20.JohnF.D’Amico,RenaissanceHumanisminPapalRome:HumanistsandChurchmenontheEveoftheReformation (Baltimore:

JohnsHopkinsUniv.Press,1983),5–6.TheBibledidnotrequireclericalvowsofchastity.Itdidrequirespiritualleaderstoactwithintegrity.Butthepope,nottheBible,governedtheChurch.

21.JosephMcCabe,CrisesintheHistoryofthePapacy:AStudyofTwentyFamousPopesWhoseCareersandWhoseInfluenceWereImportantintheDevelopmentoftheChurchandintheHistoryoftheWorld(NY:G.P.Putnam’sSons,1916),263.

22.Daniell,WilliamTyndale,77.23.F.DouglasPrice,“GloucesterDioceseunderBishopHooper,1551–3,”TransactionsoftheBristolandGloucestershireArchaeological

Society,55(1938):101.24.JohnFoxe,TheActsandMonumentsofJohnFoxe,vol.5(London:R.B.SeeleyandW.Burnside,1837–41),117.25.WilliamBarclay,NewTestamentWords(Norwich,UK:SCMPress,1964),68–69.26.AlisterMcGrath,IntheBeginning:TheStoryoftheKingJamesBible(London:Hodder&Stoughton,2001),127–129.27.R.C.Sproul,ed.,TheReformationStudyBible(Nashville:ThomasNelson,1995),iv.28.McGrath,IntheBeginning,140.29.Ibid.,143,144.30.http://bible.crosswalk.com/Commentaries/GenevaStudyBible/gen.cgi?book=da&chapter=006.31.http://bible.crosswalk.com/Commentaries/GenevaStudyBible/gen.cgi?book=da&chapter=011.32.McGrath,IntheBeginning,143.33.Genesis12:3;18:18,Hosea4:6&14;Romans1:18–32;Matthew28:18–20,etc.34.John8:31–32.

PARTVEpigraph:FredKaplan,Lincoln:TheBiographyofaWriter(NY:HarperCollins,2008),3–4.

CHAPTERTEN1.ChristianityandConservatism,theRtHonMichaelAlisonMPandDavidL.Edwards,eds.(London:HodderandStoughton,1990),337–

338.2.ClaudiusBuchanan,ChristianResearchesinAsia:WithNoticesoftheTranslationofScripturesintotheOrientalLanguages,9thed.

(London:G.Sidney,1812),213–14.3.TheKashiSocietyforPromotionofNagariScript.4.ShabdSagar(Varanasi:NagriPracharinisabha,1924).5.HughTinker,SouthAsia:AShortHistory(London:Macmillan,1989),100–101.6.Acts17:26–27.7.Genesis12:1–4;15:4–7;18:18–19.8.Psalm102:13–14.9.Psalm137:1,5–6.10.1Chronicles23:25.11.Jeremiah29:7.12.Matthew10:6.13.Matthew28:18–20,Acts1:8,etc.14.Genesis18:18.15.TranslatedbyNivadC.ChaudhuriinTheAutobiographyofanUnknownIndian.http://books.google.com/books.16.MichaelMadhusudanDutt,TheAnglo-SaxonandtheHindu(Madras,1854).

CHAPTERELEVEN1.RuthapRoberts,TheBiblicalWeb(AnnArbor,MI:Univ.ofMichiganPress,1994),10.2.Genesis20:1–17.3.ErichAuerbach,Mimesis:TheRepresentationofRealityinWesternLiterature,trans.WillardR.Trask(Princeton:PrincetonUniv.Press,

2003),14.4.Genesis18.5.Genesis12:1.6.Genesis17:1NKJV.7.MeenakshiMukherjee,RealismandReality:TheNovelandSocietyinIndia(Delhi:OUP,1996),7.8.Auerbach,Mimesis,15.9.T.S.Eliot,SelectedEssays(London:FaberandFaber,1999),390.10.BedetheVenerable,Bede’sEcclesiasticalHistoryoftheEnglishNation,trans.J.Stevens,rev.J.A.Giles(NY:E.P.Dutton,1sted.

1910,reprinted1958),205–208.11.Matthew10:29.12.WilliamShakespeare,TheTragedyofHamlet,PrinceofDenmark(Scene2).13.Shakespeare,KingLear(Act4,Scene1).14.InvitationtotheClassics,ed.byLouiseCowanandOsGuinness(GrandRapids,MI:BakerBooks,1998),19–20.15.1Peter2:11.16.Hebrews11:10.17.DanteAlighieri,TheDivineComedy(1320)CantoXXXIII.18.Matthew6:10.19.JohnBunyan,ThePilgrim’sProgress,ed.W.R.Owens(Oxford:OxfordUniv.Press,2009)xii,10.20.JohnBunyan,Works,vol.III,p.235(editionbyGeorgeOffor).Thisgreathymnhasmanyversions,someofwhichbringoutPilgrim’s

heroismbetterthantheoriginalitself.21.Barzun,FromDawntoDecadence,264.22.Ibid.,270.23.Romans2:11KJVandRomans10:12NIV.24.HenryVanDyke,ThePoetryofTennyson,10thed.(NY:CharlesScribner’sSons,1905),391–437.25.ClelandBoydMcAfee,TheGreatestEnglishClassic:AStudyoftheKingJamesVersionoftheBibleandItsInfluenceonLifeand

Literature(Harper,1912),286.26.StephenKing,OnWriting:AMemoiroftheCraft(NY:Scribner,2000),197.

CHAPTERTWELVE1.MichaelEdwardes,BritishIndia1772–1947(NewDelhi:Rupa&Co.,1994),110.2.Fordetaileddocumentationofthispointseemybook,India:TheGrandExperiment.3.Edwardes,BritishIndia,115–117.4.Forthetextofhisletter,seemybook,MissionaryConspiracy(Mussoorie:GoodBooks),154–159.5.SelectionsfromtheEducationalRecords(NewDelhi:NationalArchivesofIndia),81–90.6.SamuelWilberforce,TheLifeofWilliamWilberforce(London:JohnMurray,1872),340.7.Matthew28:28.8.TheDanishkinggrantedSeramporeaRoyalCharterin1827.Sadly,in1883,Seramporebegantoconferonlytheologicaldegrees.Instead

ofteaching“secular”subjectsfromtheperspectiveofaChristianworldview,itabandonedthemtotheideologyofsecularism.9.InNorthIndia,forexample,TulsidashadproducedaKhariBoli(old“Hindi”)versionoftheRamayan.ButtheBrahminsrefusedtoaccept

itasscriptures.10.TheletterwrittenfromCalcutta,dated11Dec1823.SelectionsfromtheEducationalRecords(NewDelhi:NationalArchivesofIndia),

81–90.11.CharlesTrevelyan,OntheEducationofthePeopleofIndia(London:Longman,Orme,Brown,1838),192–93.12.Mr.Macaulay,on1833July26,HansadParliamentaryDebates,ThirdSeries,vol.xx(London,1833).13.ThomasBabbingtonMacaulay,“Minuteof the2ndofFebruary,1835”inSpeechesbyLordMacaulaywithHisMinuteonIndian

Education(London:OxfordUniv.Press,HumphreyMilford,1935),359.14.Matthew5:5.15.CharlesH.Haskins,TheRiseofUniversities(NY:HenryHolt,1923),3.16.R.W.Southern,TheMakingoftheMiddleAges(1953)(London:Pimilco,1993),164.17.Ibid.,165.18.Ibid.,207.19.Ibid.20.Ibid.,208.21.H.G.Wells,TheOutlineofHistory(NY:GardenCityBooks,1961),587–88.22.Luther’sWorks,vol.44,TheChristianinSociety,ed.JamesAtkinson(Philadelphia:FortressPress,1966),202.23.Ibid.,200.24.Ibid.25.Ibid.,201.26.Ibid.,202.27.Ibid.28.Ibid.,203.29.Ibid.30.Ibid.,204.Lombard’ssentenceswerecommentsorcommentariesontheBible.31.Ibid.,205.32.JohnDewey,“TheAmericanIntellectualFrontier”NewRepublic,10May1922,vol.30(NY:RepublicPublishing,1922),303.33.HermannWeimer,ConciseHistoryofEducation(NY:WisdomLibrary,1962),78.34.InhisbookTheSouloftheAmericanUniversity:FromProtestantEstablishmenttoEstablishedNonbelief(NY:OxfordUniv.Press,

1994),33,GeorgeMarsdenwrites,“OneoftheremarkablefactsofAmericanhistoryisthatonlysixyearsaftertheirsettlementintheMassachusettswildernessthePuritansestablishedwhatsoonbecameareputablecollege.Highereducationwasforthemahighpriorityincivilizationalbuilding.”

35.Ibid.

CHAPTERTHIRTEEN1.Genesis1:27–29.2.ThomasSprat,HistoryoftheRoyalSociety,62(quotedbyPeterHarrison,TheBible,231).3.Genesis1:25,31.“AndGodsawthatitwasgood….Godsawallthathehadmadeanditwasverygood.”4.Proverbs27:17NIV.5.FritjofCapra,TaoofPhysics(FlamingoS.1975),317.TheideasofAldousHuxleyandLynnWhiteJr.hadbeguntocirculateinIndiainthe

1960s. Later, Capra, physicist-turned-mystic/environmentalist became very popular in India. Capra is one of many who condemnChristianity for creating science and the ecological mess. Also popular was Marilyn Ferguson’s book Aquarian Conspiracy (LosAngeles:J.P.Tarcher,1980),whichblamedChristianityforscience,technology,socialoppression,andecologicalcrisis.

6.SeeOakley’sessay,“ChristianTheologyandtheNewtonianScience:TheRiseoftheConceptoftheLawsofNature,”inChurchHistory,vol.30(TheAmericanSocietyofChurchHistory,1961),433–457.

7.Proverbs8:29NIV.Suchverses,explainshistorianFrancisOakley,shapedtheoriginalideaof“naturallaws.”Seehisessay,“ChristianTheologyandtheNewtonianScience,”ChurchHistory,vol.30,1961.

8.U.S.Constitution,DeclarationofIndependence,1776.9.Genesis1:26,17.“Letusmakemankindinourimage,inourlikeness,sothattheymayruleover…”10.AlfredNorthWhitehead,ScienceandtheModernWorld:LowellLectures,1925(NY:Macmillan,1967),12.11.JosephNeedham,ScienceandCivilisationinChina,vol.2(Cambridge:CambridgeUniv.Press,1956),581.12.MoreLettersofCharlesDarwin,ed.byFrancisDarwinandA.C.Seward,vol.1(NY:Appleton&Co.,1903),195.13.Genesis1:28KJV.14.PeterHarrison,TheBible,Protestantism,andtheRiseofNaturalScience(CambridgeUniv.Press,1998),207.15.Hinduscriptureshavemanycreationstories.Kurma—thegreattortoise—isthesecondincarnationofthegodVishnu.Hecametosupport

theearthwhengodsanddemonswerechurningtheoceanofmilktofindthenectaroflife.SeeBramhiSamhitaoftheKurmaPurana,~AD500–800.India’sfirstAnglicanBishop,ReginaldHeber(1783–1826),learnedthiswastaughtattheSanskritCollegein(present-day)Varanasi.Heber’sreport,“AJourneyThroughIndia”(1828),helpedforcetheEastIndiaCompanytointroducemoderneducationinIndia.Mangalwadi,MissionaryConspiracy:LetterstoaPostmodernHindu(1996).

16.ScholarshaveshownthatuniversitypoliticsledbytheLigawastheprimarycauseofGalileo’spersecution.SeeRoyE.Peacock,ABriefHistoryofEternity:AConsideredResponsetoStephenHawkings’ABriefHistoryofTime(Wheaton,IL:CrosswayBooks,1991).

17.AllocutionoftheHolyFatherJohnPaulII,October31,1992,theHolySee.

18.RichardLewontin,“BillionsandBillionsofDemons”(reviewofTheDemon-HauntedWorld:ScienceasaCandleintheDarkbyCarlSagan,1997),TheNYReview,9January1997,31.

19. Rodney Stark, For the Glory of God: How Monotheism Led to Reformations, Science, Witch-Hunts and the End of Slavery(Princeton:PrincetonUniv.Press,2003),178–192;394.

20.MichaelJ.Behe,TheSearchfortheLimitsofDarwinism(NY:FreePress,2008).ISBN:0743296222.21.J.Sanford,J.Baumgardner,W.Brewer,P.Gibson,andW.Remine,“Mendel’sAccountant:Abiologicallyrealisticforward-timepopulation

geneticsprogram,”SCPE.8(2),July2007,pp.147–165.http://mendelsaccount.sourceforge.net/(accessedJanuary15,2011).22.WilliamA.DembskiandJonathanWells,TheDesignofLife(Dallas:TheFoundationforThoughtandEthics,2007).23.Harrison,TheBible,18.24.Ibid.,4.25.ForagoodintroductionseeBiblicalOriginsofModernSecularCulture:AnEssayintheInterpretationofWesternHistorybyWillis

B.Glover(Macon,GA:MercerUniv.Press,1984).26.SeeStark,FortheGloryofGod,160–163and198–199.27.ElaineHowardEcklund,Sciencevs.Religion:WhatScientistsReallyThink(OxfordUniv.Press,2010).28.Stark,FortheGloryofGod,159.29.Ibid.,171.NewtonwrotelongcommentariesontheBible’sbooksofDanielandRevelation30.SeeOakley,“ChristianTheology,”438–39.Metaphysicalnecessitarianismmeantthatthingsbehavedinacertainwaybecauseoftheir

inherent “form” or inner logic. Natural laws were thus “immanent” in nature, not imposed on nature by God. Because they wereimmanentinthings,theywerebindingonGod.

31.M.B.Foster,“ChristianTheologyandModernScienceofNature,”Mind:AQuarterlyReview,vol.44,1935,31.32.M.B.Foster,“TheChristianDoctrineofCreationandtheRiseofModernNaturalScience,”Mind:AQuarterlyReview,January1934,

448.33.Glover,BiblicalOrigins,10–11.34.SeeJamesMacLachlan,GalileoGalilei,FirstPhysicist(NY:OxfordUniv.Press,1997).35.FrancisBacon,TheAdvancementofLearning(London:HenrieTomes,1605).The1893editionbyDavidPrice(Cassell&Company)is

onlineatwww.fullbooks.com.36.GalileoGalilei,“LettertotheGrandDuchessChristinaofTuscany,1615.”37.U.S.Constitution,TheDeclarationofIndependence,1776.38.Glover,BiblicalOrigins,83–85.39.Ibid.,84.40.Proverbs25:2.41.Glover,BiblicalOrigins,84–85.42.1John4:1–3.43.See1Timothy4:1–5.44.Psalm19:1;Revelation4:11.45.Genesis3:17–18;2Chronicles7:14;Hosea4:1–6.46.Harrison,TheBible,58.47.Genesis4:10–12;6:3–7.48.Matthew1:21.49.Galatians3:13.50.1Corinthians15:3.51.1John1:8–9.52.2Chronicles7:14.53.Romans8:19–23.54.FrancisBacon,NovumOrganumwithOtherPartsoftheGreatInstauration,trans.andeds.PeterUrbachandJohnGibson(Chicago:

OpenCourt,1994),292–293.55.Harrison,TheBible,194.56.SirThomasBrowne,ReligioMedici,inBrowne’sReligioMediciandDigby’sObservations,ed.HenryFrowde(London:Clarendon

Press,1909),32.57.Tertullian,AdversusMarcionem,edandtrans.byErnestEvans(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1972),47.58.Harrison,TheBible,63.59.John8:32.60.1Peter2:9.61.1Corinthians10:31.62.Revelation4:11.63.Psalm19:1.

Epigraph:“ConstitutionalPracticeofCommunityofMemory?SomeRemarksontheCollectiveIdentityofEurope,”ReflectionsonMultipleModernities:European,Chinese,andOtherInterpretations,eds.DominicSachsenmaierandShmuelEisenstadt(Boston:Brill,2002),211.

PARTVI

CHAPTERFOURTEEN1.http://www.finfacts.com/corruption.htm.EigenPressRelease27Aug2002,BribePayersIndex2002TransparencyInternational,p34.2.Hebrews4:13NIV.3.Malachi3:8–9.4.Ephesians4:28.5. Lord Macaulay’s essay, Clive, is published as appendix 3 in the Indian edition of my book, Missionary Conspiracy: Letters to a

PostmodernHindu(Mussoorie:NiveditGoodBooks,1996).6.IanBradley,TheCallToSeriousness:TheEvangelicalImpactontheVictorians(NY:MacmillanPublishing,1976).7.Mangalwadi,MissionaryConspiracy(Mussoorie:Nivedit,1996)andIndia:TheGrandExperiment(UK:PippaRannBooks,1997).8.1Corinthians1:18–25.9.1Corinthians15:3–4.10.Revelation20:11–15.11.Revelation3:20.12.ThefulltextofthelectureispublishedinmybookMissionaryConspiracy.Inthislecturehesummarizedtheclassic1939studybyJ.W.

Bready,EnglandBeforeandAfterWesley.13.JournalofJohnWesley,ChristianClassics,EtherealLibrary,www.ccel/wesley/Journal.

CHAPTERFIFTEEN1.AlexisdeTocqueville,DemocracyinAmerica,trans.GeorgeLawrence,ed.J.P.Mayer(HarperPerennial,1988),603.2.Ibid.,590.3.Ibid.,261.4.Ibid.,291.5.Matthew19:4–6.6.Ibid.,603.Emphasisadded.7.Genesis1:26–27.8.Genesis3:16.9.Tocqueville,DemocracyinAmerica,731.10.Forthefullstorysee,WhyIAmnotaMuslimbyIbnWarraq(NY:PrometheusBooks,1995),99–101.11.“Youhaveheardthatitwassaid,‘Youshallnotcommitadultery.’ButIsaytoyouthateveryonewholooksatawomanwithlustfulintent

hasalreadycommittedadulterywithherinhisheart.“Itwasalsosaid,‘Whoeverdivorceshiswife,lethimgiveheracertificateofdivorce.’ButIsaytoyouthateveryonewhodivorceshiswife,exceptonthegroundofsexualimmorality,makeshercommitadultery,andwhoevermarriesadivorcedwomancommitsadultery”(Matthew5:27–32).

12.Formoredetaileddiscussion,seemychapter“TantricSex—ACelebrationofLife?”inmybookWhenTheNewAgeGetsOld:LookingforaGreaterSpirituality(Downer’sGrove,IL:IVP,1992).

13.Ibid.Seethechapter“DoingEcologyIsBeingHuman.”14. Nicol McNicol and Vishal Mangalwadi,WhatLiberatesaWoman:TheStoryofPanditaRamabai—ABuilderofModern India

(Landour, Mussoorie, UA, India: Nivedit Good Books, 1996). Also TheLegacyofWilliamCarey:AModel forTransformingaCulture.

15.Tocqueville,DemocracyinAmerica,287.16.ForthefullstoryseeIbnWarraq,Ibid.,100–101.InSura66.15Godsays,“OProphet!WhyhaveyouforbiddenyourselfthatwhichGod

hasmadelawfuluntoyou[i.e.Mary],outofdesiretopleaseyourwives,forGodisforgivingandmerciful?VerilyGodhassanctionedtherevocation of your oaths [to stay away from Mary] . . . If he divorces you [wives], God will give him in your stead wives moresubmissiveuntoGod,believers,pious,repentant,devout,fasting;bothWomenmarriedpreviously,andvirgins.”TheSurawastoMary’sadvantage,butshesawthroughitandneverconvertedtoIslam.Therefore,shecouldneverbecomeawife.

17.Matthew19:9–11.18.Stark,RiseofChristianity(Princeton:PrincetonUniv.Press,1996).19.“Youshallnotmurder”(Exodus20:13).20.“Forthemanwhodoesnotlovehiswifebutdivorcesher,saystheLORD,theGodofIsrael,covershisgarmentwithviolence,saysthe

LORDofhosts.Soguardyourselvesinyourspirit,anddonotbefaithless”(Malachi2:16).21.Leviticus18:6–18.22.“Youshallnotcommitadultery”(Exodus20:14).23.“Thereforeanoverseermustbeabovereproach,thehusbandofonewife”(1Timothy3:2).24.Stark,RiseofChristianity,104–105.25.“ReligionthatispureandundefiledbeforeGod,theFather, isthis: tovisitorphansandwidowsintheiraffliction,andtokeeponeself

unstainedfromtheworld”(James1:27).26.Stark,RiseofChristianity,106.27.Ibid.SeealsoKeithHopkins,“TheAgeofRomanGirlsatMarriage,”PopulationStudies18(1965),309–27.28.C.Schmidt,TheSocialResultsofEarlyChristianity,trans.Mrs.Thorpe(London:WilliamIsbister,1889),47.29.QuotedbyancienthistorianAulusGelliusinTheAtticNightsofAulusGellius,vol.1,trans.JohnC.Rolfe(NY:G.P.Putnam’sSons,

1927),31.30.BerylRawson,“TheRomanFamily”inTheFamilyinAncientRome:NewPerspectives,ed.BerylRawson(Ithaca:CornellUniv.Press,

1986),11.

31.MinuciusFelix,The“Octavius”ofMinuciusFelix,trans.J.H.Freese(NY:Macmillan),83.32.HeikoA.Oberman,Luther:ManBetweenGodandtheDevil(NY:ImageBooks,1992),277.33.SwamiSivananda,BlissDivine(Sivanandanagar,DivineLifeSociety,1974),539–540.34.RolandBainton,HereIStand:MartinLuther(UK:Lion,1978),298.35.Ibid.36.Genesis1:31.37.Genesis2:18.38.Genesis2:24.39.TheapostlesPeterandPaulcalledeverybelieverapriest,andtheirbodies,templesoftheHolySpirit.See,forexample,1Peter2:9and1

Corinthians6:19.40.Bainton,HereIStand,352.41.AsaCatholic,hecallsit“Protestantism.”42.Tocqueville,DemocracyinAmerica,585–88.43.Genesis18:17–19.44.Luke1:17.45.Ibid.,595.46.Ibid.,42.47.Ibid.,393–94.48.Genesis2:18NIV.49.Ephesians5:23.50.MartinLuther,TreatiseonGoodWorksinLuther’sWorks:TheChristianinSociety,ed.JamesAtkinson,gen.ed.HelmutT.Lehmann,

trans.byW.A.Lambert,vol.44(Philadelphia:FortressPress,1966),98–99.51.SeechaptersonecologyandvegetarianisminWhenTheNewAgeGetsOld(Mangalwadi)formoredetaileddiscussiononthebiblical

teachingonoriginalsin,curse,eco-feminism,goddessworship,etc.52.Ibid.

CHAPTERSIXTEEN1.FriedrichNietzsche,“TheTwilightoftheIdols”inThePortableNietzsche,trans.byWalterKaufmann(NY:VikingPress,1954),505.2.Galatians5:22–23.3.Acts1:8;John15,etc.4.2Corinthians1:3.5.CultureMatters,eds.LawrenceE.HarrisonandSamuelP.Huntington(NY:BasicBooks,2000),2.6.Thiscommentisnotmeanttosuggestthatall“alternative”medicineordivinehealingishocus-pocus.Foradiscussionofholistichealing,

pleaseseethechapter“MyCourseinMiracles”inmybookWhenTheNewAgeGetsOld(InterVarsityPress,1992).7.LawrenceE.Stager,AshkelonDiscovered:FromCanaanitesandPhilistines toRomansandMoslems (Washington D.C.: Biblical

ArchaeologySociety,1991),51.8.ForadiscussionoftheradicalnatureofJesus’compassionseemychapter,“HisCompassion:Jesus,TheTroubleMaker”inTruthand

Transformation.9.Luke4:18.10.Matthew9:36.11.Matthew10:16;John10:11.12.Matthew12:10–12;Mark3:2–5;Luke13:10–16.13.Matthew19:13.14.Matthew8:3,9:10–13;Luke17:11–19;John4.15.St.JustinMartyr,TheFirstandSecondApologies,inAncientChristianWriters,vol.56.trans.,ed.byLeslieWilliamBarnard(NY:

PaulistPress,1997),31–32.16.SeePaulJohnson,AHistoryofChristianity(NY:Atheneum,1976),75.17.SwamiVivekananda(1863–1902),thefounderofRamakrishnaMission,wasthefirstHindugurutoimitateChristianservicetotryto

preventconversionstoChrist.18.St.Augustine,OnNatureandGrace(AD415),quotedinCharlesNorisCochrane,ChristianityandClassicalCulture(Oxford:Oxford

Univ.Press,1940),489.19.ThomasSydenham,TheWorksofThomasSydenham,MD,Prefaceto1sted,1666,trans.R.G.Latham,SydenhamSociety,1848,25.20.DorothyClarkeWilson,DR.IDA:TheStoryofDr.IdaScudderofVellore(London:Hodder&Stoughton,1961).21.K.Spink,MotherTeresa:ACompleteAuthorizedBiography,(NY:HarperOne,1998).22.Foradiscussion,seemyearlierbooks,forexample,MissionaryConspiracy:LetterstoaPostmodernHinduandIndia:TheGrand

Experiment.23.MalcolmMuggeridge,JesusRediscovered(NY:Pyramid,1969),157.

CHAPTERSEVENTEEN1.ReubenG.Thwaites,CyrusHallMcCormickandtheReaper,vols.1–2,(StateHistoricalSocietyofWisconsin,2009).2.MaxWeber,TheProtestantEthicandtheSpiritofCapitalism,trans.TalcottParsons(NY:CharlesScribner’sSons,1958),80.3.RichardBaxter,Baxter’sPracticalWorks,vol.1(LettermanAssoc.,2007),115.

4.Seeforexample,GeorgeMarsden,FundamentalismandAmericanCulture(Oxford:OxfordUniv.Press,2006).5.Proverbs14:34.6.WilliamT.Hutchinson,CyrusHallMcCormick:SeedTime,1809–1856(NY:Century,1930),271.7.Matthew6:24.8.Matthew25:14–30.9.HisbookwascalledSummadeArithmetica,Geometria,ProportionietProportionalita(Venice,1494).10.DavidLandes,TheWealthandPovertyofNations(NY:W.W.Norton,1998),94.11.Ibid.,350–59.12.RafaelAguayo,Dr.Deming:TheAmericanWhoTaughttheJapaneseAboutQuality(NY:Fireside,1991).13.See,forinstance,MaxWeber,TheProtestantEthicandtheSpiritofCapitalism(citedabove)orTalcottParsons,“Christianityand

ModernIndustrialSociety”inTheTalcottParsonsReader,ed.BryanS.Turner(Malden,MA:Blackwell,1999),23–50.14.TheDictionaryofAmericanBiography(NY:CharlesScribner’sSons,1946).

CHAPTEREIGHTEEN1.O.I.A.Roche,TheDaysoftheUpright:AHistoryoftheHuguenots(NY:ClarksonN.Potter,1965),340.2.“CambridgeHistoryoftheReformation,”http://www.third-millennium-library.com/readinghall/MODERN-HISTORY/REFORMATION/9/5-

Massacre-of-the-Waldenses.html(accessedNovember27,2010).3.DavidGress,FromPlatotoNATO(NY:FreePress,1998).SeeChapter1,“TheGrandNarrativeanditsFate.”4.Luke4:18.5.PaulJohnson,“LayingDowntheLaw,”inTheWallStreetJournal,10March1999,A22.6.Exodus20:2.7.F.N.Lee,AlfredtheGreatandOurCommonLaw(QueenslandPresbyterianTheologicalSeminary,2000).8.Luke1:52–53;Matthew5:3,5,10;Luke12.32.9.John8:36.10.Numbers14.11.Exodus3:13–20;4:29.12.Deuteronomy17:14–20.13.ManegoldofLautenbach,LiberadGebehardum,AD1085.14.J.C.Holt’stranslationinMagnaCarta(Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniv.Press,1965),327.15.FrançoisHotman,FrancogalliainConstitutionalismandResistanceintheSixteenthCentury:ThreeTreatisesbyHotman,Beza,&

Mornay,ed.,trans,andabr.byJulianH.Franklin(NY:Penguin,1969),79.16.HugoGrotius,TheLawofWarandPeace,1625;EmmerichdeVattel,TheLawofNationsorthePrinciplesofNaturalLaw,1758.17.SevenBishops’Trial,12Howell’sStateTrials183(1688).18.EnglishBillofRights,1Will.&Mar.,Sess.2,C.2.19.MarkHall,VindiciaeContraTyrannos:TheInfluenceoftheReformedTraditionontheAmericanFounding,annualmtg.American

PoliticalScienceAssoc.Washington,D.C.Sept.2010.20.WilliamCarey,AnInquiryintotheObligationsofChristians(London:BaptistMissionarySociety,1991),95–96.21.RecordsoftheHouseofCommons,July26,1833.Forthetextofhisspeech,seethechapter,“TheEvangelicalManifestoForIndia’s

Freedom”inIndia:TheGrandExperiment,87–108.22.JohnLocke,TwoTreatisesonCivilGovernment,2nded.(London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons,1887),293.23. Donald S. Lutz, “The relative influence of European writers on late eighteenth-century American political thought,” The American

PoliticalScienceReview,1984,189.Inanalyzing3,154documentsfrom1760to1805,HynemanandLutzfoundthat34percentcitedtheBible,8.4percentcitedMontesquieu,7.9percentBlackstone,and2.9percentLocke.

24.GaryT.Amosdetails“HowtheBibleandChristianityInfluencedtheWritingoftheDeclarationofIndependence”inDefendingtheDeclaration(ProvidenceFoundation,1994).

25.EdmundBurke,ALetterfromMr.BurketoaMemberoftheNationalAssembly:InAnswertoSomeObjectionstoHisBookonFrenchAffairs(NY:HughGaine,1791),31.

26.RobertC.Winthrop,“TheBible:AnAddressDeliveredattheAnnualMeetingoftheMassachusettsBibleSocietyinBoston,May28,1849”inAddressesandSpeechesonVariousOccasions,vol.1(Boston:Little,Brown,andCo.,1852),172.

27.Conversationwithauthorin1999.

PARTVIIEpigraph:PeterBergerinGlobalizationandtheChallengesofaNewCentury:AReader,eds.O’Meara,Mehlinger,andKrain(Bloomington,IN:IndianaUniv.Press,2000),425.

CHAPTERNINETEEN1.From1857to1947mostofIndiawasgoverneddirectlybytheBritishCrown.2.In1813,IndianRupees2.13=US$1orRs8=1£.In2010,IndianRupees48=US$1.3.John3:16.4.HaimG.Ginott,TeacherandChild:ABookforParentsandTeachers(NY:AvonBooks,1975).5.ThestoryoftheHmarpeopleistakenfromRochungaPudaite,TheBookThatSetMyPeopleFree(Wheaton,IL:TyndaleHouse,1982);

JoeMusserandJamesandMariHefley,FireontheHills:TheRochungaPudaiteStory(Wheaton,IL:TyndaleHouse,1998).6. See the author’s booklet Spirituality of Hate: A Futuristic Perspective on Indo-Pakistan Conflict. Available from

www.VishalMangalwadi.com.7.BeyondtheNextMountain,1987,JamesF.Collier,director;RolfForsberg,producer(VisionVideo,DVD2004).AvailablefromNetflix.

CHAPTERTWENTY1.WilliamJ.Federer,Backfired:ANationBornforReligiousToleranceNoLongerToleratesReligion(St.Louis:Amerisearch,2007).2.Thelecture“PsychologyastheBehavioristViewsIt”wasdeliveredatColumbiaUniversity.3.B.F.Skinner,BeyondFreedomandDignity(Indianapolis:HackettPublishing,2002).Originallypublishedin1971.4.NancyPearcey,TotalTruth:LiberatingChristianityfromItsCulturalCaptivity(Wheaton,IL:CrosswayBooks,2004).5.Inthefollowing“conversation”IhavetakenthelibertytosimplifyDixon’sacademicarguments.Therefore,Iamputtingsomewordsinhis

mouth. Those who want to read his brilliant essay, “Theology, Anti-Theology and Atheology: From Christian Passions to SecularEmotions,”canfinditinModernTheology:vol.15,no.3(Oxford:BlackwellPublishers,July1999).

6.Anearliermeaningofpassionwastobecommittedtoacauseorpersonenoughtosufferforthatthing/person.MelGibsonusedthatmeaninginhisfilmThePassionoftheChrist.Paulcallsnegativeandpositivepassionsthe“acts(works)oftheflesh”and“fruitoftheSpirit.”“Theactsofthefleshareobvious:sexualimmorality,impurityanddebauchery;idolatryandwitchcraft;hatred,discord,jealousy,fitsofrage,selfishambition,dissensions,factionsandenvy;drunkenness,orgies,andthelike…ButthefruitoftheSpiritislove,joy,peace,forbearance,kindness,goodness,faithfulness,gentlenessandself-control”(Galatians5:19,21a,22–23aNIV).

7.Dixon,“Theology,”308.8.NancyPearcey,SavingLeonardo:ACalltoResisttheSecularAssaultonMind,Morals,andMeaning(Nashville:B&H,2010).9.JeffreyM.SchwartzandSharonBegley,TheMindandtheBrain:NeuroplasticityandthePowerofMentalForce(NY:ReganBooks,

2002).10.MarioBeauregardandDenyseO’Leary,TheSpiritualBrain:ANeuroscientist’sCasefortheExistenceoftheSoul(NY:HarperOne,

2007).11.In2005,Schwartz,theoreticalphysicistHenryP.Stapp,andpsychologistMarioBeauregardchallengedthematerialistinterpretationthat

mind is but brain. See “Quantum Physics in Neuroscience and Psychology: A Neurophysical Model of Mind/Brain Interaction,”PhilosophicalTransactionsoftheRoyalSociety(UK).

12.Romans6:19;9:8;Corinthians15:46;Jude1:19.13.VijayMartisetal.BurntAlive:TheStainsandtheGodTheyLoved(GLS,Mumbai1999,2008).14.Matthew5:11–12.15.Matthew5:44.16.1Peter1:8.17.See1Peter1:14–23.18.Jesus:“Thenyouwillknowthetruth,andthetruthwillsetyoufree”(John8:32NIV).19.TimothyL.Smith,RevivalismandSocialReform(Eugene,OR:Wipf&Stock,2004).20.“Takemyyokeuponyouandlearnfromme,forIamgentleandlowlyinheart,andyouwillfindrestforyoursouls”(Matthew11:29

NKJV).21.John1:11–12.22.SeeGregoryH.Nobles,DivisionsThroughouttheWhole:PoliticsandSocietyinHampshireCounty,Massachusetts,1740–1775

(Cambridge:CambridgeUniv.Press,1983).23.WilliamG.McLoughlin,“’EnthusiasmforLiberty’:TheGreatAwakeningastheKeytotheRevolution,”PreachersandPoliticians:Two

EssaysontheOriginsoftheAmericanRevolution(Worcester:AmericanAntiquarianSociety,1977),48.24.Ibid.,49–50.25.AgoodstudyisbyDanielJ.Elazar,CovenantandCommonwealth:FromChristianSeparationThroughtheProtestantReformation,

theCovenantTraditioninPolitics,vol.2(NewBrunswick:TransactionPub.,1996),2.26.“AbramsaidtothekingofSodom,‘IhaveliftedmyhandtotheLORD,GodMostHigh,Possessorofheavenandearth’”(Genesis14:22).27.DavidBarton,OriginalIntent(Aledo,TX:WallBuilders,2008),182.28.Quotedinwww.Americanchronicle.comfromJohnQuincyAdams,LettersofJohnQuincyAdamstoHisSonontheBibleandIts

Teachings(Auburn:JamesM.Aden,1850).29.WashingtonDailyMorningChronicle,September8,1864,citedinTheCollectedWorksofAbrahamLincoln,vol.7,543.30.America’sGodandCountry:EncyclopediaofQuotations,WilliamJ.Federer,ed.,(St.Louis:Amerisearch,Inc.,2000),227.31.Forthepulpit’sroleincreatingmodernEngland,seeHerbertSchlossberg’sTheSilentRevolutionandtheMakingofVictorianEngland

(Columbus,OH:OhioStateUniv.Press,2000).32.WernerGitt,IntheBeginningWasInformation,AScientistExplainstheIncredibleDesigninNature(GreenForest,AR:Master

Books,2006).33.Luke8:4–15.34.John5:24–29.35.“TheJewsansweredhim[Pilate],‘Wehavealaw,andaccordingtothatlawheoughttodiebecausehehasmadehimselftheSonof

God’”(John19:7).36.John11.37.1John3:1–3.38.Romans10:9–10.39.1Peter1:23.

40.John5:24–26.41.2Timothy3:15–17.42.Psalm119:9.43. Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Meditatingon theWord (Cambridge, MA: Cowley,1986) A. W. Tozer, ThePursuitofGod (Camp Hill, PA:

WingSpread,1992).44.Matthew4:1–10.45.Psalm119:105.46.Lamentations1:1–3.47.Ezekiel2:9—3:3.48.Ezekiel37:1–3,11–14.SeealsoIsaiah45.49.2Chronicles36:23.SeealsoEzra1.50.Deuteronomy30:19.

APPENDIX1.DanBrown,TheDaVinciCode(NY:Doubleday,2003),231.2.Luke23:4NIV.3.John19:10.4.Acts24:26–27.5.John18:37.6.InActs10:9–19,Peterreceivedarevelationinatrancelikevision.Subsequenteventsinchapters9and10confirmedthatthevisionwas

fromGod.7.Daniel,whodidreceiveprivatevisions,didnottrytogethiscontemporariestobelievehisprophecies.“I,Daniel,wasdeeplytroubledbymy

thoughts,andmyfaceturnedpale,butIkeptthemattertomyself”(Daniel7:28).“Hereistheendofthematter.Asforme,Daniel,mythoughts greatly alarmed me, and my color changed, but I kept the matter in my heart.” Later generations, including Jesus Christ,believed him because his prophecies turned out to be so true that many modern scholars thought his book must have been writtencenturiesafterDaniel’stime.

8.1Thessalonians2:13,emphasisadded.9.BartonPayne,EncyclopediaofBiblicalProphecy(NY:Harper&Row,1973).10.1Corinthians15:2–3;Luke24:44–48.11.Luke22:41–42.12.Luke22:49–51.13.Matthew26:54;Mark14:49.14. http://www.cosmicfingerprints.com/blog/intelligent-bacteria/John Tyler Bonner, The Social Amoeba: The Biology of Slime Molds

(Princeton:PrincetonUniv.Press,2008).15.Genesis1:3.16.Genesis1:26.17.Genesis2:7.18.Matthew22:37.19.Deuteronomy18:21,22.20.Deuteronomy4:7,29;9:26;Jeremiah29:7,12–13;31:4–14,23–28;50:4.Lamentations2:18,19.21.Jeremiah25:11–12.22.Jeremiah1:1–3;Jeremiah25:3;2Chronicles36:21;Ezra1:1;Daniel9:2.23.Daniel9:2.24.2Chronicles36:21–23;Isaiah44:24–28;Isaiah45:1,13.25.SeepassagessuchasDanielchapters9and6,Ezra1:1:“InthefirstyearofCyruskingofPersia,thatthewordoftheLORDbythe

mouthofJeremiahmightbefulfilled,theLORDstirredupthespiritofCyruskingofPersia,sothathemadeaproclamationthroughoutallhiskingdomandalsoputitinwriting(emphasisadded).”

26.Matthew4:1–10.27.1Corinthians15:2–3.28.Mark8:31–33;9:30–32;10:32–34.29.2Peter1:19–21;2Timothy3:15–16.30.Matthew5:37.31.Matthew22:29.32.Matthew7:28–30.33.Matthew19:1–11.34.Romans3:2;Hebrew3:1–6.35.Hebrews13:7NIV(emphasisadded).36.Genesis1;John1:1–3.37.John14:10.38.John8:32.39.John15:7.40.John5:24–25.41.John1:1,14.

42.John5:39.43.John17:8.44.John20:22.45.John14:26.46.John16:13.47.Matthew10:1–8.48.Luke1:2.49.Acts6:4.50.Acts2:42–44;5:12;14:3.51.Acts3:1–10.52.Acts13:7.53.Acts6:7.54.Ephesians2:20.55.1John2:19–21.56.Revelation20:4.57.InRevelation1:11Johnistold:“Writewhatyouseeinabookandsendittothesevenchurches.”AlthoughJohnwas“inthespirit”

whenhesawhisvisions,itisveryclearfromthebookthatJohn’srationalfunctionswereneverarrested.Hisbookisnot“automatic”spiritwriting.Thisiseyewitnesstestimony.Revelation1:2statesthatJohn“borewitnesstothewordofGodandtothetestimonyofJesusChrist,eventoallthathesaw.”InJohn’swritings,marturew—“bearwitness”means“eyewitness.”SeeJohn1:32:AndJohn(theBaptist)borewitness:“IsawtheSpiritdescendfromheavenlikeadove,anditremainedonhim.”

58.1Corinthians6:19.59.John13:27.60.Isaiah59:21;1Corinthians2:13.61.2Corinthians5:20.62.Exodus7:2–4;Deuteronomy6:22;Acts2:22,43;14:3.

WITHGRATITUDE

ThisbookismerelyamilestoneinajourneythatRuthandIbeganalongtimeago.ProfessorPrabhuGuptaraencouragedusattheverybeginningandhasremainedavailableasasourceofwisdom,guidance,and practical support. Long conversations with Udo and Debbie Middelmann helped shape myperspective.RanaldMacaulay,LarryandMelindaLandis,ChristineColby,DarrowMiller,BobMoffitt,BobOsburn,ArtLindsley,JimandBetsyBurkett,BradBailey,thelateDr.RalphWinter,RichandSueGregg, David and Amber McDonald, Graham and Ann Fraser, Tim Mahoney, Rob Hoskins, SteveFerguson,JamesCatford,MarkElliott,BabuVerghese,JeffFountain,andIvanandSilviaKostkahavebeenotherkeyencouragersalongtheway.Besides Ruth, who was my main researcher in 1999 and 2000, the following have assisted with

research,writing,andediting:DavidHagen,TraceyFinck,JonathanRice,DougGallo,ScottandMaryKeys, and Jesse Bjoraker. Nate Andrews made a significant contribution to the chapter on literature.Ranjeet Guptara researched the history of medicine and compassion. Our daughter Nivedit helpedresearchIndiannationalismandM.M.Dutt.RoandMawiiPudaitecontributedtothechapterthattellsRo’sstory.DonaldDrewgavehisresearchonJohnWesley.ArtLindsley,ChrisWatkins,IanCooper,David Hagen, Scott and Mary Keyes, Peyton Beard, Ranjeet Guptara, and many others read themanuscripttomakehelpfulsuggestionsandminimizeerrors.Duringtheseyearsofwandering,thefollowinghaveofferedus“long-term”shelters:HughandRuth

Bradby,BasilandShirleyScott,PatBabbingtonSmith,AliceLandis,ThomandLindaWolf,MosesandMercyDavid,RonandColleenJohannsen,BobandNancyBrydges,MikeandBethKeglar-Gray,RayandAnitaSandberg,AlanMeenan,SusanRigby,PaulandSueSailhamer,TimandBeckyLewis,andnowourdaughterAnanditandherhusband,Albert.Thenumberofpeoplewhohavehelpeduswithprayersandfinancesinthisjourneyistoolargeto

recount.Noneofthemarelikelytoreadthispage,lookingfortheirnames.Yet,Imustmentionafew:DougandBethHeimberger,JayandRuthStory,GalenWatje,AliceLandis,GeneWilllis,DavidandPamelaMakela,HowardandRobertaAhmanson,thelateDr.KenTaylor,PromodandDorcasHaque,Senthil and Malathy Nathan, Bob and Mahinder Guibord, Bonagh and Mark Dalton, Bob and CathieBaldwin,TerryandKarenThigpen,GwenHenson,JimandMarlysManthei,TimandPamManthei,Deland Geri Weirich, Terry and Pamela Bosgra, Dean Cozzens, Marlys Sanford, Satish and GladysAmancharla,LarryandMaryEhrlich,AlexandRobinGeorge,ChanderandGeriMehta,WarrenandNancyMartin,SolomonandMargaret,MarilynBohne,DanielandSunitaPardhe,JyotiGuptara,KentLarue,ClellandMarcellaRogers,DennisandMaryAnnBarnett,AndrewandKrisEngles,ScottandCarolBertilson,(late)StanandMarilynReuter,DavisandReneeCitron,LuisandDorisBush,JeffandDawnSiemon,(late)PierreandSandraTullier,RichardandSusanKendal-Bell,RonWilliams,DavidandCatherineHicks,RanjeetGuptara,DwightandChristineErickson,ArchieandBarbaraLinert,SushilSingh,ThomasandMaryKraft,TomandMartyHoag,CraigandSoniaAndersen,TimandKimDulas,ErikBarr,MichaelandJayatiChelian,B.J.Dabhade,JosephandSubhashiniLadella,NelsonandNaomiHard,JaneMcNally,AnnHillstrom,RishiandEuniceGoel,PhilandLoisSvalya,DanielThomas,HughandNancyMaclellan,andVinayMangalwadi.In this journey, Mark Harris has been a huge source of practical counsel and administrative help.

Others who offered notable administrative assistant are Brad Olson, Samraj Gandhi, Anjali Guptara,

MarlaMuckala,andElizabethSkrivanek.LegalassistancewasprovidedbyGalenWatjeandScottMoen.LarryFrenzelmadeitunnecessarytoworkthroughaliteraryagent.MahoneyMedia,TedandYvonneMcDonald,SteveLaw,AndreDantzler,CarolynRafferty,LeeBehar,andAllanCarringtonaremakingitpossibletopackagemyresearchforthedigitalmediasuchaswww.RevelationMovement.com.Joel Miller, Vice President, Thomas Nelson, had the vision to publish this book, and it was an

extremelypleasantexperiencetoworkwithJaneneMacIvorastheeditor.Inthefinalmonthsofbirthingthisbook,Surya,oureighteen-month-oldfifthgrandchild,remainedthe

ever-presentsourceofhumanizingjoy.ShemadesurethatIdidn’tdisappearintoanivorytower.

ABOUTTHEAUTHOR

VishalMangalwadi(b.1949)studiedphilosophyinIndianuniversities,HinduAshrams,andL’AbriFellowshipinSwitzerland.In1976,alongwithhiswifeRuth,hefoundedtheAssociationforComprehensiveRuralAssistanceto

serve the poor and low-caste peasants in central India. Vishal’s first book, a study of contemporaryHinduism,TheWorldofGurus(1977)waswritteninthecompanyofhisilliteratefriends,farfromtheivorytower.Itbecameaninstanthitandhasremainedatextbookinmanyuniversities.Frominitiatingandmanagingserviceprojects,Vishalmovedintoorganizingpeasantsanduntouchables

into political parties, ultimately serving in the national headquarters of two political parties in NewDelhi,India.Forhiswritings,backedbyhisservicetothepoor,theBhartiyaDalitSahityaAcademyhonored him with the “Distinguished National Service Award,” the William Carey InternationalUniversity,Pasadena,California,honoredhimwithanLL.D,andthecountygovernmentofLosAngeleshonoredhimwithascrollofcommendation.VishalandRuthhavetwodaughtersandfivegrandchildren.Aninspirationalspeaker,Vishalhaslecturedinthirty-threecountries.Manyofhisvideosareavailable

atwww.RevelationMovement.com.

INDEX

Aabortion,♣,♦,♥Abraham(patriarch),♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊Achilles,♣,♦Adams,JohnQuincy,♣AdelardofBath,♣Adler,Mortimer,♣adultery,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Οn22:Jesus’teachingon,◊,∅n11Aeneid(Virgil),♣Aeschylus,♣Afghanistan,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇Africa,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊agnosticism,♣AkbartheGreat(Mogulemperor),♣,♦,♥àKempis,Thomas.SeeThomasàKempisAlbertofBrandenburg(akaAlbertofMainz),♣,♦,♥AlberttheGreat,♣AlcuinofYork,♣Alberdi,JuanBautista,♣AlbertusMagnus,Saint(akaAlberttheGreat),♣alcohol,♣,♦,♥alcoholism,♣,♦,♥AlexandertheGreat,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡Alexander♣(pope),♦Alfred,LordTennyson.SeeTennyson,AlfredAllah,♣,♦,♥AllahabadUniversity,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡allegoricalmethod(ofinterpretingtexts),♣AlQaeda,♣“alternative”medicine,♣n6AmericanBibleSociety,♣Americangirl.Seewomen:AmericanAmericanRevolution,♣,♦,♥Anabaptists,♣,♦Anaximander,♣Anglicists,♣Anglo-Saxon(language),♣animism,♣,♦,♥apartheid,♣apRoberts,Ruth,♣AquarianConspiracy(Ferguson),♣n5Aquinas,Thomas.SeeThomasAquinas,SaintArabic(language),♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅ArabicBible,♣Arabicmedicine,♣Arabicscience,♣Aramaic(language),♣Archimedes,♣Aristotle,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Οart,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊Aryabhata(mathematician),♣Aryans(Indo-Europeans),♣,♦Aryansupremacy,♣asceticism,♣,♦,♥,♠

Ashoka(emperor),♣,♦Ashokapillars,♣,♦Asia,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊.SeealsoSouthAsiaastrology,♣,♦,♥,♠astronomy,♣,♦atheism,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇Auerbach,Erich,♣,♦Augustine,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗,⊕,⊗,∞,∂,αn9Augustus(GaiusJuliusCaesarAugustus),♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇Avatar(2009film),♦Averröes(akaIbnRushd),♣,♦Avicenna(IbnS?n?),♣,♦,♥Ayurveda,♣

BBabylon,♣,♦,♥,♠Babylonianexile,♣,♦Babylonians,♣,♦Bach,JohannSebastian,♣,♦n25Bacon,Francis,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡Bainton,Roland,♣,♦,♥Barthes,Roland,♣Barzun,Jacques,♣,♦,♥BasilofCaesarea,Saint,♣Baxter,Richard,♣Beauregard,Mario,♣,♦n11Bede,Saint,theVenerable,♣Beecher,Lymen,♣Behe,Michael,♣BenedictofNursia,Saint,♣,♦Bengali(language),♣,♦,♥,♠Benz,Ernst,♣,♦,♥n7BernardofClairvaux,Saint,♣,♦Berger,Peter,♣Beza,Theodore,♣,♦BhagavadGita,♣BharatiyaJanataParty(BJP),xix–xxBhaskarAcharya,♣Bible,♣:burning,♦,♥;anddemocracyinIndia,♠;andEuropeaneducation,†;andindividualtransformation,‡;andnationalism,Δ;whatitaccomplisheditIndia,∇;andwomenandtheeconomy,ΟBibletranslation,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊n19:biblicalphase,∅;Romanphase,∗;papalphase,⊕BillofRights(U.S.),♣Blackstone,SirWilliam,♣,♦n23Blake,William,♣,♦,♥,♠Bloom,Allan,♣,xiii–♦,♥,♠“BloodyMary.”SeeMary♣ofEngland(queen)Boethius(AniciusManliusSeverinusBoethius),♣,♦,♥,♠Bollywood,♣,♦Bonaparte,Napoleon.SeeNapoleonIBono,♣books:God’stwo,♣;God’s,ofnature,♦Borden,Caroline,♣Boyle,Robert,♣,♦BoyScouts,♣Bracton,Henryde,♣,♦Bradley,Ian,♣,♦,♥Brahma(universalself),♣Brahmagupta,♣Brahmins,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇n9Brahmiscript,♣Braille,Louis,♣Britain,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗,⊕:colonizationof/ruleinIndia,⊗,∞,∂,α,β,γ,κ,Θn1(chap.Φ);effect

ofGreatAwakeningon,δ,Muslimsin,λ,ψBritishEastIndiaCompany,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇n15BritishRaj(BritishIndianempire),♣,♦,♥,♠Brown,Dan,♣,♦,♥,♠,†Browne,SirThomas,♣Browning,Robert,♣Bruno,Giordano,♣Bucer,Martin,♣Buchanan,Claudius,♣,♦,♥Buddha,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗,⊕,⊗,∞,∂Buddhism,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇Buddhistdoctrineofcreation,♣Bunyan,John,♣,♦Buridan,Jean,♣Burke,Edmund,♣,♦Bush,GeorgeW.,♣

CCaliphate,♣,♦Calvin,John,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡Calvinists,♣CambridgeUniversity,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗Cameron,James,♣,♦Campbell,Joseph,♣,♦Camus,Albert,♣,♦canonization,♣CanterburyTales(Chaucer),♣capitalism,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,ΔCapra,Fritjof,♣,♦n5Carey,William,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇Carlstadt,Andreas,♣Carolingiandynasty,♣Carter,Jimmy,♣CassiodorusSenator,FlaviusMagnusAurelius,♣caste,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗,⊕,⊗,∞,∂,α,β,γ,κ,Θ,Φ,δ,λ,ψ,ϖ,ϑ,ΛCastelli,Benedetto,♣Catholicism,♣,♦,♥.SeealsoRomanCatholicChurchCatholicchurches:anddevelopmentofpolyphonicmusic,♣;inHolland,♦celibacy,♣,♦character,♣,♦,♥,♠n28:theBible’stransformationofpeople’s),†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο;therolefamily/marriageplaysinshapingandtransmitting,◊,∅,∗,⊕;universitiesand,⊗,∞Charlemagne(emperor),♣,♦Charles♣(HolyRomanEmperor),♦Charles♣ofFrance(king),♦Chastity,♣:female,♦,♥;vowsof,♠,†,‡n20Chaucer,Geoffrey,♣,♦China,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅:andmusic,∗;newprosperityof,⊕;andprinting,⊗;andscience,∞;andshipbuildingandseatravel,∂;andstewardship,αChinese(historicalpeople),♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡chivalry,knightly,♣:religious,♦,♥Chopra,Deepak,♣Christianeducation,♣,♦,♥,♠ChristianScience,♣churchcouncils,♣,♦,♥,♠,†:of1277,Δ.Seealsoindividualcouncils,bynameChurchofEngland,♣,♦,♥,♠,†CIA(CentralIntelligenceAgency),xxCicero,MarcusTullius,♣,♦,♥CityofGod,The(Augustine),♣,♦civildisobedience,♣,♦,♥,♠n7Classists,♣Clement♣(pope),♦Clinton,Bill(formerpresident),♣

Clive,Robert,♣Cobain,Kurt,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊Cochrane,CharlesNorris,♣n9colonialism,♣,♦,♥,♠,†Columbus,Christopher,♣,♦Comenius,JohnAmos,♣,♦,♥Communism,♣,♦,♥compassion,♣,♦,♥:American,♠;combiningknowledgewith,†;asafruitoftheSpirit,‡;radicalnatureofJesus’,Δn8Congress(U.S.),♣,♦,♥,♠,†conquistadors,♣,♦n3conscience,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ:disobeyingthegovernmentingood,∇;England’sChristian,Ο;Luther’sobediencetohis,◊Constantine♣(emperor),♦,♥,♠,†Copernicus,Nicolaus,♣,♦,♥corruption,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗,⊕,⊗,∞,∂,α,β,γ,κ,Θ,Φ,δ,λ,ψ,ϖ,ϑ:effectof,ΛCorruptionPerceptionsIndex(CPI),♣,♦cosmologicalworldview,♣,♦CouncilofBasel,♣CouncilofConstance,♣CouncilofNicaea,♣CouncilofTroyes,♣Coverdale,Miles,♣Cowan,Louise,♣Cowing,Cedric,♣Cowper,William,♣,♦,♥CPI.SeeCorruptionPerceptionsIndexCranmer,Thomas(archbishop),♣creation(theevent),♣,♦,♥,♠,†:biblical/Christiandoctrineof,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅;Buddhistdoctrineof,∗,⊕,⊗;Genesisaccount,∞,∂,α,β,γ;andmusic,κ,Θ;stories,Φ,δn15Crombie,Alistair,♣Cromwell,Oliver,♣,♦cross(ofChrist),♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗,⊕Crusades,♣,♦n,♥Curzon,GeorgeNathaniel,♣cynicism,♣,♦:inIndia,♥Cyprian,Saint,♣Cyrus(kingofPersia),♣,♦n25

Dd’Ailly,Pierre,♣D’Amico,John,♣Daniel(biblicalprophet),♣,♦,♥,♠,†n7:bookof,‡,Δn29Daniell,David,♣DanteAlighieri,♣,♦,♥DarkAges,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡n16:lightoflogicinthe,ΔDarwin,Charles,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇Darwinism,♣,♦Das,ShyamSunder,♣DasCapital,♣,♦DayanandaofHaridwar(swami),♣David(kingofIsrael),♣,♦,♥,♠,†n20daVinci,Leonardo,♣,♦DaVinciCode,The(Brown),♣,♦Debussy,Claude,♣DeclarationofIndependence,♣deHamel,Christopher,♣deism,♣,♦,♥Dembski,William,♣Deming,W.Edwards,♣democracy,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗,⊕,⊗,∞,∂,α,β,γ:inIndia,theBibleand,κ;sourceofmodern,ΘDemocritus,♣*Derrida,Jacques,♣Descartes,René,♣,♦,♥Dewey,John,♣

determinism,♣,♦dharma,♣,♦,♥Dickens,Charles,♣,♦,♥dignityandimmortality,♣.SeealsohumandignityDiocletian(emperor),♣,♦divinehealing,♣n6divineinspiration,♣divinerightofkings,♣,♦divisionofpowers,♣divorce,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗,⊕:Jesus’teachingon,⊗,∞n11;OldTestamenton,∂n20;Qur’anon,αn16Dixon,Thomas,♣,♦n5(chap.♥)Drew,Donald,♣,♦,♥drugs(illicit),♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δdrunkenness,♣,♦n6(chap.♥)Duff,Alexander,♣,♦,♥,♠Duffy,Eamon,♣n25Durant,Will,♣Dutch(language),♣,♦,♥Dutt,MichaelMadhusudan,♣

EEastIndiaCompany,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Οn15Ecklund,ElaineHoward,♣eco-feminism,♣n51ecology,♣n51economics,♣,♦,♥,♠,†:andspirituality,‡economy:theBible,women,and,♣EcumenicalCouncilof1179(ThirdCounciloftheLateran),♦education,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗,⊕,⊗,∞,∂,α,β,γ,κ,Θ,Φ,δ,λ:theBibleandEuropean,ψ;Christian.SeeChristianeducation;forthedeafandtheblind,ϖ;higher.Seehighereducation;inIndia,ϑn15;inKorea,Λ;medieval,Π;thereformationof,Σ;roleofmusicin,♣♣,♦♦,♥♥;secular,♠♠,††*,‡‡,ΔΔ;technical,∇∇*;inTurkey,ΟΟ;ofwomen,◊◊,∅∅,∗∗,⊕⊕Edward♣ofEngland(king),♦Edward♣ofEngland(king),♦Edward♣ofEngland(king),♦Edwardes,Michael,♣Edwards,Jonathan,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇Eigen,Peter,♣EilmerofMalmesbury,♣Einstein,Albert,♣,♦,♥Eisenhower,DwightD.,♣Elazar,David,♣elders,ruleof,♣,♦Eliot,T.S.♣Ellul,Jacques,♣England:beforeandafterJohnWesley,♣English(language),♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗;translationoftheBibleinto,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡.SeealsoOldEnglishEnglishliterature,♣,♦,♥,♠:early,†;Renaissance,‡Enlightenment(Western,andAgeof),♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇Enlightenment(inBuddhism),♣,♦,♥Enlightenment(French).SeeFrenchEnlightenmentenvironmentalism,♣,♦Épée,Charles-Micheldel’,♣equality,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗Erasmus,Desiderius,♣,♦,♥Eratosthenes,♣evolution,♣extraterrestrials,♣,♦,♥eyeglasses,♣,♦Ezekiel(prophet),♣

FFacebook,♣family,♣,♦*,♥,♠,†,‡:asthe“schoolofcharacter,”Δ,∇fatalism,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ:Hindu,♣;Islamic,♦,♥;secular,♠fatherhood,♣,♦Ferguson,Marilyn,♣n5Ferguson,Wallace,♣Fincher,David,♣Finney,Charles,♣,♦,♥FirstCouncilofNicaea,♣FirstCrusade,♣*,♦Fish,Stanley,♣,♦n28Forbes,Robert,♣fossilrecord,♣Foster,M.B.,♣Foucault,Michel,♣Frederick♣(ElectorofSaxony),♦,♥freemarketeconomy,♣,♦,♥freewill,♣,♦,♥,♠Freese,Edward,♣French(language),♣,♦,♥,♠FrenchEnlightenment,♣,♦FrenchRevolution,♣,♦,♥FrenchWarsofReligion,♣Freud,Sigmund,♣,♦,♥,♠n5fruit(s)oftheSpirit,♣,♦,♥n6(chap.♠):compassionasa,†Fry,Elizabeth,♣,♦future(oftheWest),♣

GGalbertofBruges,♣Galen(AeliusGalenus),♣,♦,♥Galileo,♣,♦,♥,♠n16gambling,♣Gandhi,Indira,♣*,♦*,♥,♠Gandhi,Mahatma,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅:SriJayaprakashNarayanas“second,”∗n1Gallaudet,Thomas,♣GenevaBible,♣George♣ofGreatBritain(king),♦Gerson,Jean,♣Gibson,Mel,♣n6(chap.♦)Gilby,Anthony,♣Gilchrist,Rev.JohnBorthwick,♣,♦,♥Ginott,HaimG.,♣GiordanodaRivalta(friar),♣gladiator(s),♣,♦globalization,♣,♦,♥n28.Seealsochap.♣GloriousRevolution(1688),♦,♥Glover,WillisB.,♣,♦Gnosticforgeries,♣Gnostics/Gnosticism,♣,♦,♥,♠*,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊goddessworship,♣,♦n51Gore,Al,♣gospel:powerof,tosaveusfromsin,♣Goths,♣grace(ofGod),♣n**,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊Grains,Diana,♣Grant,Charles,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,ΔGrant,Charles,Jr.,♣,♦Grant,Edward,♣,♦,♥,♠GreatAwakening,♣,♦,♥,♠,†:First,‡,Δ

Greaves,Rev.E.,♣Greece,democracyin,♣,♦greed,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,ΟGreek(language),♣,♦,♥Greekmyth,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,ΔGreeley,Horace,♣Gregory♣(pope),♦Gregory♣(pope),♦GregoryofTours,Saint,♣Gress,David,♣Grotius,Hugo,♣gurus,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δn6

HHaldeman-Julius,E.,♣Halley,Edmund,♣Hanway,James,♣Harington,James,♣Harvard,Rev.John,♣HarvardUniversity,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡Harrison,Peter,♣,♦Haskins,Charles,♣head-hunting,♣,♦,♥Hebrew(language),♣,♦,♥,♠HeidelbergCatechism,♣Henry,Patrick,♣Henry♣(king),♦Henry♣(emperor),♦Henry♣(king),♦,♥,♠n25heretic(s),♣,♦***,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊n25hermeneutics,♣hero:theclassical,♣;themedieval,♦Herodotus,heroism,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅n20:Abraham’s,∗;Bible’sredefinitionof,⊕;Christ’s,⊗;classical,∞,∂,α,β;Luther’s,γ,medieval/knightly,κ,Θ,Φ;missionary,δ;modern,λHigginbottom,Sam,♣,♦highereducation,♣,♦,♥,♠,†n34Hillman,James,♣Hindi(language),♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡n9Hinduism,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊*,∅,∗,⊕Hindu-Muslimconflict,♣Hindu-Sikhconflict,♣Hindustani,♣Hipparchus,♣Hippocrates,♣,♦:the“EnglishHippocrates”(Sydenham).SeeSydenham,ThomasHippocraticoath,♣,♦Hitler,Adolf,♣,♦,♥,♠Hmars,♣,♦HNGR(HumanNeedsandGlobalResources),♣,♦Hobbes,Thomas,♣holistichealing,♣n6Holland,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡Holmes,George,♣HolySpirit(alsoGod’sSpirit),♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗n39Homer,♣,♦,♥,♠,†horse,♣Hotman,François,♣,♦HouseofCommonsofEngland,♣,♦Howard,John,♣,♦HughofSaintVictor,♣,♦Huguenots,♣,♦,♥,♠,†:politicalinfluenceof,‡humandignity,♣,♦,♥:thebasisof(Incarnation),♠;restoring,tothedeafandtheblind(througheducation),†humanism,♣,♦,♥,♠:Renaissance,†

humanity.Seechap.♣,“Humanity”humanrights,♣,♦,♥,♠,†Humayun(Mogulemperor),♣Hume,AllanOctavian,♣Hume,David,♣Huss,John(alsoJanHus),♣,♦,♥,♠*,†Hussey,Obed,♣,♦Hutchins,RobertMaynard,♣Huxley,Aldous,♣,♦,♥,♠n5

IIbnRushd,♣,♦idolatry,♣,♦n6(chap.♥)illiteracy,♣,♦,♥,♠immorality,dignityand,♣impermanence,♣Incarnation,the,asbasisofhumandignity,♣India,:author’sservice/service-relatedexperiencesin,♣,♦,♥;Britain’spresence/rulein,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Οn1(chap.◊);casestudyofthetransformingof,∅;theBibleanddemocracyin,∗;Careyand,⊕;colonizationof,xix,⊗,∞,∂,α;cynicismin,β;democracyof,γ,κ;Grant’sworkin,Θ;Hmarsof,Φ,δ;Japan,China,and,λ;literacyratein,ψ;literature/mythof,ϖ,ϑ,Λn9,Πn15;LordMacaulayand,Σ,♣♣;medicinein,♦♦,♥♥,♠♠;Muslimconquestof,††;riotsin,‡‡;Royand,ΔΔ;thetranslators’effectonnationalityidentityof,∇∇;whattheBibleaccomplishedin,ΟΟ;Trevelyanand,◊◊;Wilberforceand,∅∅IndianNationalCongress,♣,♦“IndianRenaissance,”♣,♦,♥individuality,♣,♦,♥,♠,†indulgences,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡n6IndustrialRevolution,♣,♦,♥,♠infanticide,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡“InGodWeTrust,”♣,♦Innocent♣(pope),♦,♥integrity,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Οn20internationalism,♣intuition,♣,♦*,♥,♠,†,‡,ΔIreland,♣,♦Islam:conqueringofIndia,♣;divorcein,♦;inabilityof,todevelopscience,♥;loyaltynotavirtueof,♣;andmusic,♦;reasonsforfailuretoproduceliberty,♥,♠Islamic:astrology,♣;civilization(s),♦,♥,♠,†,‡;culture(s),Δ,∇;fatalism,Ο,◊;hero,∅;intellectuals/scholars,∗,⊕,⊗;invasions,∞;literatureandtheBible,∂;medicine,α;rulersandarmies,β,γ;scholarship,κ;thought,Θ,Φ,δ,λ,ψ,ϖ;tradition,ϑIslamizationofChristianity,♣

JJames,William,♣James♣ofEngland(king),♦James♣ofEngland(king),♦Japan,♣,♦*,♥,♠,†Jefferson,Thomas,♣,♦Jerome,Saint,♣,♦,♥,♠Jerusalem,♣,♦,♥,♠*,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗Jesus:andbelief in theHebrewScriptures, ♣, ♦, ♥n7;author’sbelief inandacceptanceof, ♠;compassionof, †, ‡n8; GreatCommissionof,Δ,∇;heroismof,Ο;Incarnationof,◊,∅*,∗,⊕;John’sexperienceswith,⊗,∞,∂;languageusedby,α;andmoney/stewardship,β;NewTestamentviewof,γ;ontheleader’srole,κ;purposeof,;Θ,Φ,δ;resurrectionof,λ,ψ,ϖ,ϑ,Λ,Π,Σ,♣♣;andtheSabbath,♦♦;sacrificialandsubstitutionarydeathof,♥♥,♠♠,††,‡‡;trialof,ΔΔ,∇∇,ΟΟ,◊◊,∅∅.Seealsochap.∗∗(“Heroism:HowDidaDefeatedMessiahConquerRome?”)JewishScriptures,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡John(theapostle),♣,♦,♥*,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅n57:gospelof,∗,⊕,⊗JohntheBaptist,♣JohnofDamascus,Saint,♣,♦John♣ofEngland(king),♦JohnPaul♣(pope),♦JohnofSalisbury,♣John♣(pope),♦

Johnson,Paul,♣Joseph(sonofJacob),♣,♦,♥,♠,†Judaism,♣JudasIscariot,♣,♦JuliantheApostate(emperor),♣JuliusCaesar,♣,♦Jung,Carl,♣JusticeLiftstheNations(Robert)(painting),♣

KKamaSutra,♣karma,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅Keivom,L.,♣Keller,Helen,♣Kellogg,Rev.S.H.,♣,♦Khusro,Amir,♣Kilwardby,Robert,♣King,Stephen,♣KingJamesBible,♣,♦KingswoodSchool,♣KnightsTemplar,♣,♦Koine(commonGreek),♣Knox,John,♣,♦,♥,♠Kuglar,Paul,♣

LLactantius,♣Landes,David,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,ΔLangton,Stephen(archbishop),♣languages,♣,♦,♥,,♠,†(chap.‡,“Languages”),Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗,⊕,⊗,∞,∂,α.SeealsoindividuallanguagesLaterancouncils,♣.SeealsoEcumenicalCouncilof1179Latin(language),♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗,⊕Lecky,William,♣Leo♣(pope),♦,♥Leo♣(pope),♦Lewis,C.S.,xviLewontin,Richard,♣liberalprotestants,♣liberty.Seechap.♣,“Liberty”life,sourceof,♣Lilburne,John,♣,♦Lincoln,Abraham,♣,♦,♥,♠literature.Seechap.♣,“Literature:Bible’sinfluenceon,♦;earlyEnglish,♥;GreekandRomaninfluenceon,♠;RenaissanceEnglish,†;inthesecularWest,‡Locke,John,♣,♦,♥,♠,†n23logic,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗,⊕,⊗,∞,∂,αn30logos,♣,♦,♥,♠,†Lollard(s),♣Louis♣ofFrance(king),♦Love,Courtney,♣loyalty,♣,♦,♥,♠,†Lucas,George,♣,♦Luther,Martin,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗,⊕,⊗,∞

MMachiavelli,Niccolò,♣,♦**Macaulay,ThomasBabington(Lord),♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡MacLaine,Shirley,♣n20madrasas,♣MagnaCarta,♣,♦,♥MaharishiMaheshYogi,♣,♦ManegoldofLautenbach,♣Mangalwadi,Vishal,personalpilgrimage.Seepart♣(♦);spiritualpilgrimage.Seechap.♥MarcionofSinope,♣marriage:Jesus’teachingon,♣;philosophyof,♦;roleofBible’steachingon,inunderstandingAmericancharacterandculture,♥;andsex,♠Marsden,George,♣,♦n34Marshman,Joshua,♣,♦Martyn,Henry,♣,♦,♥,♠,†Martyr,Justin,♣martyrdom,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δn12.SeealsoindividualChristianmartyrsMarx,Karl,♣,♦,♥Marxists,andindividuality,♣Mary,QueenofScots,♣Mary♣ofEngland(queen),♦Mategaonker,D.W.,♣,♦,♥,♠,†n8mathematics,♣,♦,♥,♠,†Matrix,The(movietrilogy),♣,♦*McCormick,Cyrus,♣,♦,♥McCormick,MaryAnn,♣,♦McCormick,Nancy,♣McCormick,Robert,♣,♦McCormick,Thomas,♣McGrath,Alister,♣,♦McLoughlin,William,♣Mecca,♣

Medici,Catherinede’,♣medication(psychiatric),♣medicine:Arabian♣;birthofmodern,♦Greeksand,♥;andtheHmars,♠;Indian,†medievalvirtues,♣Mellers,Wilfrid,♣Melville,Andrew,♣metaphysicalnecessitarianism,♣,♦n30metaphysics,♣*Metellus(QuintusCaeciliusMetellusMacedonicus),♣MethodistChurch,♣Michaels,Wynoma,♣MiddleAges,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ**,∇,Ο,◊,∅*,∗Mill,James,♣Mill,JohnStuart,♣Milton,John,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,ΔMirandola,GiovanniPicodella(called“Pico”),♣*,♦,♥n5(chap.♠)mission.Seechap.♣,“Mission”MissionaryConspiracy(Mangalwadi),xxi,♣n5(chap.♦),♥n12(chap.♠)missionarymovement,♣,♦,♥,♠,†missionarysocieties,♣,♦Mizopeople,♣modernity,theglobalizingof.Seepart♣(♦)Moguls,♣,♦,♥*monasticism,♣monogamy,♣*,♦,♥,♠,†,‡Montesquieu(Charles-LouisdeSecondat,barondeLaBrèdeetdeMontesquieu),♣,♦n23Moody,DwightL.,♣,♦morality:connectiontoliberty/freedom,♣,♦.Seealsochap.♥,“Morality”Mornay,Philippede(duPlessis-Mornay),♣,♦Mortley,Raoul,♣Moses(patriarch),♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗,⊕,⊗,∞,∂,αMotherTeresa,♣,♦movies,♣Muggeridge,Malcolm,♣,♦,♥Muhammad,♣**,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,ΔMuir,SirWilliam,♣,♦Mukherjee,Meenakshi,♣Mundy,Peter,♣murder(s),ofauthor’sfamilymembers,♣;Bible’scommandagainst,♦,♥n19;ofinfantsandchildren,♠,†,‡;ofJuliusCaesar,Δ;ofProtestantsbyMaryI,∇;resultingfromMarxistandNietzscheanfascistmythsΟ;threatsof,againstauthor,◊,∅;ofUriah,byKingDavid,∗music,♣,♦,♥:intheBible,♠n20;Cobain’s,†,‡;floweringofWestern,Δ;hardcore,∇;Hindu,Ο;inheaven,◊n14;introductionofthepipeorganin,∅;lossoftonalityinWestern,∗;MiddleEasternnations’limitationson,⊕,⊗n12;takingittothemasses,∞;writingintotheWest’sDNA,∂Muslim-Sikhconflict,♣Mussolini,Benito,♣mysticism,♣*,♦,♥,♠,†,‡myth,♣,♦,♥:ofCaesarasLord,♠.Seealsosecularmythmyths:Biblevs.Greek,♣;effortsoftheWesttofindmeaningthrough,♦,♥,♠;Europeanrejectionof(infavoroftheBible),†;Greco-Roman,‡;Greek,Δ,∇,Ο,◊;Hindueffortstofindhistoricaltruthbehindreligious,∅*;Indian,∗;religious,⊕*,⊗;secular,∞;resultsoffascist,∂

NNadirShah,♣*,♦NagariPrachariniSabha,♣Napoleon♣,♦,♥Narayan,Jayaprakash,♣n1nationalism,♣,♦,♥,♠,†:theBibleand,‡;biblicalandsecular,compared,Δnaturallaws,♣,♦n7,♥n30Nazism,♣Nazis,♣,♦Nehemiah(biblical),♣

Nehru,Jawaharlal(pandit),♣,♦,♥,♠*,†Nero(emperor),♣,♦NewAge:groups,♣;superstitionsandmysticism,♣*NewAgemovement,♣,♦NewCovenant,acovenantofgrace,♣Newkirk,Ingrid,♣NewTestament:canonization,♣;theWordofGod?♦Newton,Isaac,♣,♦,♥,♠n29Newton,John,♣,♦Nicaea,FirstCouncilof,♣Nietzsche,Friedrich,♣,♦,♥,♠n11nihilism,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,ΔNirala,SuryakantTripathi.SeeTripathiNirvana:inBuddhism,♣,♦;therockband,♥,♠Nobles,Gregory,♣nominalism,♣nonself(anatman),♣nothingness,♣,♦,♥*,♠,†.SeealsoShoonyta

OOakley,Francis,♣,♦nn6–♥Ockham’srazor,♣Odysseus,♣,♦,♥,♠Odyssey(Homer),♣oil,♣,♦,♥OldEnglish(language),♣“OnenationunderGod,”♣Origen,♣,♦originalsin,♣,♦n51Orwell,George,♣,♦(notetoepigraph)Osho.SeeRajneesh,BaghwanShreeoutcastes,♣OxfordUniversity,♣,♦,♥,♠,†*,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗,⊕,⊗

P–QPacioli,FraLucaBartolomeode,♣Pakistan,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇PakudhaKatyayana,♣*Paticcasamuppada(the“ChainofDependentOrigination”),♣*,♦Patrick,MaryMills,♣Patrick,Saint,♣*paganism,♣,♦Pali(language),♣pantheism,♣papacy,♣,♦,♥,♠Paracelsus(Renaissanceastrologer),♣,♦Parliament(Eng.),♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇:Macaulay’sspeechto,Ο;membersof,◊,∅,,∗,⊕,⊗,∞;the“Model,”∂PassionoftheChrist(film),♣n6(chap.♦)patriotism,♣,♦Paul(theapostle),♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗,⊕,⊗,∞,∂,αn39,βn6(chap.γ)Paul♣(pope),♦Payne,J.Barton,♣penance,♣,♦**,♥Persian(language),♣,♦,♥,♠,†Peter(theapostle),♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇n39,Οn6Petrarch,♣,♦,♥Philip♣ofSpain(king),♦Philip♣ofFrance(king),♦PhiloofAlexandria,♣*,♦,♥,♠philosophy,Arabic,♣;Aristotle’s(ofnature),♦;Bruno’simmanentist,♥;Comenius’seducationalphilosophy,♠;Darwin’s“survivalofthefittest,”†;economic,intheHinducastesystem,‡;Greek,Δ,∇,Ο,◊;Hindu,xx;theHuguenots’understandingoftheBible’spolitical,

∅;Indian,∗;Locke’spolitical,⊕;Luther’s,⊗;ofmarriage,∞;Modern,∂;ofmusic,biblical,α,β;non-fatalistic(fromBacon’sexpositionoftheBible),inEnglandandAmerica;γ;natural(science),κ,Θ,Φ,δ;Patristic,λ;pessimisticphilosophyofsilence,ψ;Plato’s,ϖ;postmodernandskeptical,ϑ;Samkhya,Λ*;ofscience(India’s),Π;ofself-love,Σ;ofsin(biblical),♣♣;Sydenham’smedical,♦♦;Western,xvii,♥♥,♠♠,††Pilate,Pontius,♣,♦,♥,♠,†n35Pilgrim’sProgress(Bunyan),♣Pilgrims(American),♣,♦pillarsofAshoka.SeeAshokapillarsPlato,♣,♦*,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,ΟPlatonism,♣,♦polygamy,♣,♦polytheism,♣,♦politicalthought:Beza’sroleinshapingWestern,♣;Greek,♦;influenceofEuropeanwritersonlateeighteenth-centuryAmerican,♥n23poverty:correlationbetweencorruptionand,♣;cultureand,♦Presbyterians,♣*,♦,♥priesthoodofallbelievers,♣,♦,♥,♠,†printing/printingpress,♣,♦*,♥prophecies:♣,♦n7Protestantism,♣,♦Protestantworkethic,♣ProtestantReformation,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗,⊕,⊗,∞,∂,α,β,γ,κ,Θ,Φ,δ,λ,ψ,ϖ,ϑprowess,♣,♦,♥,♠,†Psalms,bookof,♣Ptolemy,Claudius,♣Pudaite,Chawnga,♣Pudaite,L.T.,♣Pudaite,Rochunga(Ro),♣,♦♣n5(chap.♦)purgatory,♣,♦,♥Puritanism,♣,♦Puritans,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Οn34PyrrhoofElea,♣Pythagoras,♣Quakers,♣Qur’an,♣**,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇

RRaikes,Robert,♣,♦Rajneesh,BaghwanShree(akaOsho),♣Ramakrishna,♣Ramayana,♣,♦n9Ramcharitmanas(Tulsidas),♣Randall,JohnHerman,♣rape,♣,♦,♥,♠rationality.Seechap.♣,“Rationality”(♦);seealso,♥,♠,†*,‡,Δ,∇,Ο.Ratke,Wolfgang,♣RedCross,♣Reformation.SeeProtestantReformationrelativism,♣Renaissance,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ:birthof,∇,Ο;corruptioninParisduring,◊;anddiscoveryofman/humandignity,∅,∗;Italian,⊕;literature,⊗;naturalismofartof,∞;rediscoveryofGreeklearning,;∂;universities,α,βresurrection:Isitplausible?♣;avisionofnational,♦resurrectionofChrist,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇revelation,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ:inabilitytoverifyprivate,∇Revelation,bookof,♣,♦,♥,♠n17,†n29RevelationofPeter,The,♣Roberts,Frederick,♣Roberts,WatkinsR.,♣RomanCatholicChurch,♣,♦,♥,♠*,†,‡,Δ,∇;Ο:andtheemancipationofwomen,◊RomanEmpire,♣,♦,♥,♠:collapseof,†,‡,Δ,∇;cultureofcrueltyof,Ο,marriagein,◊;Napoleon’seffortstorevivethe,∅;patternoftheRomanChurchafterthe,248–49;pluralismof,⊕;Reformation’seffecton,⊗Rome:beginningofandreasonsforthevulnerabilityof,♣;classicalinfluenceof,♦;Christianity’srisein,♥;colonizationoftheJewsby,♠;declineof,†;failureofHippocraticculturein,‡;fallof,Δ,∇,Ο;Galileoand,◊;howJesus“conquered”Rome.Seechap.∅;

infanticidein,∗;marriagein,⊕;Musliminvasionof,⊗;persecutionofChristiansin,∞;periodofinfluenceontheWest,∂;andpublichealth,α;rejectionofcultureof,byRomans,β;sexandprostitutionin,γ,κ;systemofgovernmentin,Θ;unalienablerightsin,ΦRorty,Richard,xiv–xviiRousseau,Jean-Jacques,♣,♦,♥Roy,RajaRammohun,♣,♦,♥,♠RoyalSocietyofScience,♣,♦,♥RuleofSt.Benedict,♣Ruskin,Roy,♣,♦Russell,Bertrand,♣Russia,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,ΔRutherford,Samuel,♣

Sagan,Carl,♣Salutati,Coluccio,♣SalvationArmy,♣Samaritans,♣Sambursky,Samuel,♣Sampson,Thomas,♣Sancroft,William,♣Sangliana,H.T.,♣Sanskrit(language),♣,♦,♥,♠,†Sartre,JeanPaul,♣,♦Satan(or,Lucifer),♣,♦Saul(kingofIsrael),♣Schwartz,JeffreyM.,♣,♦n11science,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗,⊕,⊗,∞,∂,α,β(chap.γ,“Science”),κ,Θ,Φ,δ,λ,ψ,ϖn5:Japan’simprovementsupon,ϑ;andsin,Λscientificmethod,♣,♦,♥,♠scientificrevolution:birthof,♣Scotland,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,ΟScott,SirWalter,♣,♦ScottishReformation,♣Scranton,MaryF.,♣Scudder,Ida,♣secularism,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊n8secularmyth,♣,♦,♥,♠self,♣,♦*,♥(chap.♠,“Self”),†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο*,◊n5Sen,KeshabChandra,♣“SeramporeTrio,”♣Seneca(theYounger),♣,♦service(Christian),author’sstoryof.Seechap.♣,“Service”sex:andmarriage,♣;Tantric(sacred),♦,♥,♠,†ShahJahan,♣Shaftesbury,Lord,♣Shakespeare,William,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,ΔShelley,PercyBysshe,♣,♦Shia-Sunniriots,♣Shoonyta(Silence,asultimatereality),♣,♦*,♥,♠Shourie,Arun,xix–♣,♦,♥*,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,ΟsiegeofJerusalem(1099),♦*signlanguage,♣Silence(asultimatereality),♣,♦,♥Simeon,Charles,♣,♦,♥sin:gospel’spowertosaveusfrom,♣;andscience,♣Singapore,♣*,♦Singh,Khushwant,♣Singh,Murat,♣Singh,Ram,♣,♦,♥Singh,V.P.,♣*“SinnersintheHandsofanAngryGod”(Edwardssermon),♣,♦Skinner,B.F.,♣,♦,♥

slavery,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗,⊕,⊗,∞:marriageviewedas,∂:inSouthAfrica,αSmith,Adam,♣,♦,♥,♠,†socialengineering,♣Socrates,♣,♦Sophists,♣SouthAfrica,♣,♦,♥Southern,SirRichardWilliam,♣SouthSeaBubbleof1720,♦Spain,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗,⊕n3SpanishInquisition,♣spirituality:andeconomics,♣;orgreed?(ofambition),♦;relationshipbetweenintellectualawakeningandbiblical,♥,♠; thatsavedindustrialcapitalism,†.Seealsochap.‡,“TrueWealth:HowDidStewardshipBecomeSpirituality?”Sprat,Thomas,♣Spurgeon,CharlesHaddon,♣Stager,LawrenceE.,♣Stains,Gladys,♣Stains,Graham,♣Stapp,HenryP.,♣n11Stark,Rodney,♣,♦,♥,♠,†St.Bartholomew’sDaymassacre,♣,♦,♥Steinbeck,John,♣stewardship.Seechap.♣,“TrueWealth:HowDidStewardshipBecomeSpirituality?”Stock,Thomas,♣StoneAgetribes.Seechap.♣,“Mission:CanStoneAgeTribesHelpGlobalization?”Stowe,HarrietBeecher,♣Sufism,♣*suicide,♣,♦*,♥*,♠:Cobain’s,†,‡,Δ;copycat,∇;teen,ΟSundayschoolmovement,♣,♦Sushruta,♣,♦SwamiVivekananda.SeeVivekananda(swami).Swift,Jonathan,♣Sydenham,Thomas,♣Sylvester♣(pope),♦

TTagore,Rabindranath,♣,♦TajMahal,♣*:lessonsfromthe,♦Taliban,♣,♦,♥Tantricsex/sexuality,♣,♦,♥,♠technologicalprogress:whatacceleratedWestern,intheWesternMiddleAges?♣technologies:clock(mechanical),♣;crank,♦;eyeglasses,♥;flywheel,♠;fore-and-aftrig(lateensail),†–‡;forhorses,Δ;pipeorgan,∇;watermill,Ο;wheelbarrow,◊;wheeledplow,∅;windmill,∗;technology.Seechap.♣.“Technology”:appliedscienceorappliedtheology?♦Tempier,Etienne,♣templeprostitution,♣,♦,♥TenCommandments,♣,♦,♥,♠,†Tennyson,Alfred,♣,♦,♥TeresaofCalcutta.SeeMotherTeresaTertullian,♣TeutonicKnightsofSt.Mary’sHospital,♣ThalesofMiletus,♣Thatcher,Margaret,♣,♦theocracy,♣,♦Theodosius♣,♦TheophilusPresbyter,♣,♦ThirdCounciloftheLateran.SeeEcumenicalCouncilof1179Thode,Henry,♣

ThomasAquinas,Saint,♣,♦,♥,♠Tinker,Hugh,♣Tocqueville,Alexisde,♣,♦,♥,♠,†tolerance,♣,♦,♥;religious,♠Tolkien,J.R.R.,♣,♦,♥,♠n17Tomson,Laurence,♣tournaments(medieval),♣TranscendentalMeditation(TM),♣,♦translation(ofBible).SeeBibletranslationTransparencyInternational(TI),♣transubstantiation,♣Trevelyan,Charles,♣,♦,♥,♠tribalism,♣,♦TrilogyofFreedom,♣,♦,♥Trinkaus,Charles,♣,♦Tripathi(SuryakantTripathi‘Nirala’),♣Tudor,Mary.SeeMary♣ofEngland(queen),Tulsidas,♦,♥,♠n9Tunstall,Cuthbert(bishop),♣,♦Turkmenistan,♣,♦n12Tyndale,William,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊TyndaleBible,♣,♦,♥,♠tyranny,♣,♦,♥,♠,†

Uultimatereality,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,ΟUncleTom’sCabin(Stowe),♣universities,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇,Ο,◊,∅,∗*,⊕,⊗,∞(chap.∂,“University”),α,β,γ,κ,Θ,Φ*,δ,λ,ψ,ϖ,ϑ:birthofgreat,xivuntouchability,♣,♦untouchable(s),xx,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡*,Δ,∇,Ο,◊Urban♣(pope),♦Urdu(language),♣,♦,♥,♠USSR,♣,♦.SeealsoRussiaValla,Lorenzo,♣,♦,♥n8

VvanDyke,Henry,♣Vattel,Emmerichde,♣Vedas,♣,♦,♥vegetarianism,♣n51Veith,GeneEdward,xxiVerghese,Babu,♣vernacular(s),♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇:education,ΟVestergaard,Peter,♣VindiciaeContraTyrannos(DefenseofLibertyAgainstTyrants),♣Vipasana,♣Virgil(poet),♣,♦,♥Vivekananda(swami),♣n17Vlad♣theImpaler(prince),♦volunteerism,♣vows:ofchastity/celibacy,♣,♦,♥n20;marital,♠,†;ofpoverty,‡*Vulgate,♣,♦,♥

W–XWagner,Richard,♣Waldenses,♣WallStreet,♣,♦WallStreet:MoneyNeverSleeps(movie),♣,♦,♥*Walpole,Horace,♣Walpole,Robert,♣Ward,William,♣WarsofReligion(France),♣

Washington,George,♣Watson,JohnB.,♣,♦Watts,Isaac,♣wealth:true.Seechap.♣,“TrueWealth.Weber,Max,♣,♦Welsh(language),♣Wells,H.G.,♣Wells,Jonathan,♣Wesley,Charles,♣,♦Wesley,John,♣,♦,♥:Englandbeforeandafter,♠West,the:futureof.Seechap.♣,“TheFuture:MusttheSunSetontheWest?”;andhumandignity.Seechap.♦“Humanity”;superiorityof.Seepart♥,“WhatMadetheWesttheBest?”(♠)WestAfrica,♣Westerncivilization,theseedsof.SeepartIII(♣);thesoulof.Seepart♦(♥)WheatonCollege,♣,♦,♥White,Lynn,Jr.,♣,♦,♥,♠,†*,‡n5Whitefield,George,♣,♦,♥,♠Whitehead,AlfredNorth,♣Whittingham,William,♣widowburning,♣,♦,♥widows:careof,♣,♦,♥,♠n25Wilberforce,William,♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡,Δ,∇WilliamofAuvergne(bishopofParis),♣WilliamofOckham,♣WilliamofOrange(WilliamIIIofEngland),♣,♦,♥,♠Williams,Roger,♣Winthrop,RobertC.,♣Wolpert,Stanley,♣Wolsey,Thomas(bishop),♣women:American,♣,♦,♥;theBible,theeconomy,and,♠;educationof,†;effectof“salvationbyworks”mind-setonpeople’sviewof,‡;emancipationof,Δ,∇Ο,◊;oppression/suppressionof,∅,∗,⊕, ⊗, ∞,∂,α,β,γ;RomanCatholicismandtheemancipationof,κ,Θ;status/viewof,Φ,δ,λ,ψ,ϖWomen’sForeignMissionarySociety,♣women’sliberationmovement,♣Word,the.SeeBiblewords:andthesourceoflife,♣;healingpowerof,♦workethic,♣,♦,♥worksoftheflesh,♣,♦n6(chap.♥)WorldWar♣,♦,♥,♠,†WorldWar♣,♦,♥,♠,†,‡Wood,SirCharles,♣Wycliffe,John,♣,♦,♥,♠*,†,‡*,Δ,∇,Ο,◊n8WycliffeBible,♣*,♦,♥

Y–ZYehMeng-te,♣YMCA,♣yoga,♣*,♦,♥,♠Zuckerberg,Mark,♣Zwingli,Huldrych,♣

Foreword
Prologue: Why This Journey into the Soul of the Modern World?
P ART I: T HE S OUL OF W ESTERN C IVILIZATION
1. The West Without Its Soul: From Bach to Cobain

P ART II: A P ERSONAL P ILGRIMAGE

2. Service: Or a Ticket to Jail?
3. Quest: Can Blind Men Know the Elephant?
4. Self: Am I Like Dog or God?

P ART III: T HE S EEDS OF W ESTERN C IVILIZATION

5. Humanity: What Is the West’s Greatest Discovery?
6. Rationality: What Made the West a Thinking Civilization?
7. Technology: Why Did Monks Develop It?

P ART IV: T HE M ILLENNIUM’S R EVOLUTION

8. Heroism: How Did a Defeated Messiah Conquer Rome?
9. Revolution: What Made Translators World Changers?

P ART V: T HE I NTELLECTUAL R EVOLUTION

10. Languages: How Was Intellectual Power Democratized?
11. Literature: Why Did Pilgrims Build Nations?
12. University: Why Educate Your Subjects?
13. Science: What Is Its Source?

P ART VI: W HAT M ADE THE W EST THE B EST ?

14. Morality: Why Are Some Less Corrupt?
15. Family: Why Did America Surge Ahead of Europe?
16. Compassion: Why Did Caring Become Medical Commitment?
17. True Wealth: How Did Stewardship Become Spirituality?
18. Liberty: Why Did Fundamentalism Produce Freedom?

P ART VII: G LOBALIZING M ODERNITY

19. Mission: Can Stone Age Tribes Help Globalization?
20. The Future: Must the Sun Set on the West?

Appendix: The Bible: Is It a Fax from Heaven?
Notes
With Gratitude
About the Author
Index