Qualitative methods


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    Qualitative methods

    Find four articles that use qualitative field research methods (you must have one that uses grounded theory, one using case study, one using ethnography, and one using participatory action research) and critique them according to the following criteria:

    a. Research question: Is it clearly stated? Is the need for this type of method appropriate? If yes, why? If not, why not and what would you recommend?

    b. What was the role of the researcher? Was this clear throughout the article?

    c. What can you say about the relationships between the researcher and the participants?

    d. What paradigm underlies this research?

    e. Briefly discuss the data collection procedures used. What specific aspects were considered regarding participants and their environment? Can you think of any that were not mentioned?

    f. How was the data analyzed? Was the process clearly presented? Are there any other aspects you would include?

    g. Was there a clear link between data, interpretation, and conclusions?

    h. What ethical issues were considered? What are your thoughts? Can you think of other potential ethical issues that were not addressed?

    i. What are the strengths and weaknesses of this research? What limitations do the researchers discuss? Can you think of any others?

    j. What can you notice regarding the language used? How different is it from a quantitative study? What terms are used when referring to reliability and validity? Are these aspects discussed? What are your thoughts on how the researchers in the articles approach them?

    You are encouraged, but not required, to use articles related to your topic of interest. Each article critique should be approximately one page long.

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    For personal use. Only reproduce with permission from The Lancet Publishing Group.
    In the past few years, WHO, the American Medical
    Association, International Federation of Obstetricians and
    Gynaecologists, Royal College of Nursing, and other
    professional medical organisations have made statements
    about the public-health importance of violence against
    women.
    1
    Several organisations have developed guidelines
    on how health workers can better identify, support, and
    refer victims of violence. These actions result from a
    growing recognition that violence represents a serious
    violation of women’s human rights, is an important cause
    of injury, and is a risk factor for many physical and
    psychological health problems. Understanding gender-
    based violence and the appropriate case management of
    women with a current or previous history of violence are
    now recognised as core competencies for health workers.
    In the next six editions of
    The Lancet,
    different authors will
    discuss current challenges and debates on violence against
    women and public health. As an introduction, we present
    an overview of the different forms of violence against
    women to convey an idea of its global magnitude, and
    discuss characteristics that distinguish violence against
    women from other forms of violence.
    Distinguishing violence against women from
    other forms of violence
    The UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence
    Against Women defines violence against women as:
    . . . any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is
    likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or
    suffering to women.
    2
    Although broad in its scope, this statement defines
    violence as acts that cause or have the potential to cause
    harm, and emphasises that these acts are rooted in sex
    inequality. This focus on women does not deny the fact
    that men experience violence. Indeed, war, ethnic
    cleansing, and gang and street violence are significant
    causes of male morbidity and mortality.
    3,4
    However, as
    violence against men often differs in its aetiology and
    response strategies, it warrants separate consideration.
    Lancet
    2002;
    359:
    1232

    37
    See Commentary page 1172
    Health Policy Unit, Department of Public Health and Policy, London
    School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London WC1E 7HT, UK
    (C Watts
    PhD
    , C Zimmerman
    MSc
    )
    Correspondence to:
    Charlotte Watts
    (e-mail: [email protected])
    In practice, the term violence against women
    encompasses an array of abuses targeted at women and
    girls (figure 1), ranging from sex-selective abortion to the
    abuse of elder women. The term includes geographically
    or culturally specific forms of abuse such as female genital
    mutilation, dowry deaths, acid throwing, and honour
    killings (the murder of women who have allegedly brought
    shame to their family), as well as forms of violence that are
    prevalent worldwide such as domestic violence and rape.
    There are many potential perpetrators, including spouses
    and partners, parents, other family members, neighbours,
    teachers, employers, policemen, soldiers, and other state
    employees.

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    Violence against women is not only a manifestation of
    sex inequality, but also serves to maintain this unequal
    balance of power. In some cases, perpetrators consciously
    use violence as a mechanism for subordination. For
    example, violence by intimate partners is often used to
    demonstrate and enforce a man’s position as head of the
    household or relationship. For other forms of violence, the
    subordination of women might not be the explicit
    motivation of the perpetrator, but is nevertheless a
    consequence of his actions. For example, a man who rapes
    a woman whom he judges to be sexually provocative might
    justify his act as being an appropriate punishment for her
    transgression of socially determined rules of female
    behaviour. Women themselves frequently do not challenge
    accepted norms of female behaviour because of the fear of
    being attacked or raped. Thus, women’s unequal status
    helps to create their vulnerability to violence, which in turn
    fuels the violence perpetrated against them.
    Global research on violence against women
    Over the past 20 years, the evidence of the extent of
    violence perpetrated against women has increased and is
    beginning to offer a global overview of the magnitude of
    this abuse (figure 2). We will now discuss the magnitude of
    some of the most common and most severe forms of
    violence against women. When reviewing the findings it is
    important to note that because of the sensitivity of the
    subject, violence against women is almost universally
    under-reported.
    5–7
    Thus, these findings might be more
    accurately thought of as representing the minimum levels
    of violence that occur.
    Although there are many different forms of violence
    against women, they nonetheless often share certain
    characteristics. For example, most forms of violence,
    Violence against women: global scope and magnitude
    Charlotte Watts, Cathy Zimmerman
    Violence against women I
    1232
    THE LANCET • Vol 359 • April 6, 2002 • www.thelancet.com
    VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN I
    An increasing amount of research is beginning to offer a global overview of the extent of violence against women. In this
    paper we discuss the magnitude of some of the most common and most severe forms of violence against women:
    intimate partner violence; sexual abuse by non-intimate partners; trafficking, forced prostitution, exploitation of labour,
    and debt bondage of women and girls; physical and sexual violence against prostitutes; sex selective abortion, female
    infanticide, and the deliberate neglect of girls; and rape in war. There are many potential perpetrators, including
    spouses and partners, parents, other family members, neighbours, and men in positions of power or influence. Most
    forms of violence are not unique incidents but are ongoing, and can even continue for decades. Because of the
    sensitivity of the subject, violence is almost universally under-reported. Nevertheless, the prevalence of such violence
    suggests that globally, millions of women are experiencing violence or living with its consequences.
    For personal use. Only reproduce with permission from The Lancet Publishing Group.
    including intimate partner violence, child sexual abuse,
    and much non-partner sexual abuse do not occur as
    unique incidents, but are ongoing over time, even over
    decades. Often, the woman not only knows the
    perpetrator before the first incident, but might live with
    or interact regularly with him. Also particular to most
    forms of violence against women is the way in which
    society attributes blame to female victims. Women
    experiencing intimate partner violence, for example, are
    frequently accused of having provoked the violence by
    their disobedience, failure as a wife, or infidelity. Girls or
    women who have been sexually assaulted or raped are
    frequently said to have “asked for it” by the way they were
    dressed or behaved—even when the victim is a child.

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    Intimate partner violence
    One of the most common forms of violence against
    women is that perpetrated by a husband or other intimate
    male partner. Intimate partner violence—often termed
    domestic violence—takes various forms, including
    physical violence ranging from slaps, punches, and kicks
    to assaults with a weapon and homicide
    (figure 3); and sexual violence takes forms such as forced
    sex, or forced participation in degrading sexual acts.
    These are frequently accompanied by emotionally abusive
    behaviours such as prohibiting a woman from seeing her
    family and friends, ongoing belittlement or humiliation,
    or intimidation; economic restrictions such as preventing
    a woman from working, or confiscating her earnings; and
    other controlling behaviours.
    The most accurate data on the prevalence of intimate
    partner violence comes from cross-sectional population
    surveys. Over the past 16 years, more than 50
    population-based surveys on violence by intimate
    partners have been done in various parts of the world. In
    these studies, women are asked directly about their
    experiences of specific acts of violence—eg, “has a
    current or former partner ever hit you with his fist or
    with something else that could hurt you?”.
    8
    The findings
    of these surveys indicate that between 10% and 50% of
    women who have ever had partners have been hit or
    otherwise physically assaulted by an intimate male
    partner at some point in their lives. In a review of
    surveys, between 3% and 52% of women reported
    physical violence in the previous year.
    9
    Research also suggests that many women are sexually
    assaulted by their partners. For example, in a cross-
    sectional household survey in one province in
    Zimbabwe, 26% of women who had ever been married
    reported being forced to have sex when they did not
    want to, with 20% reporting that this occurred in the
    year before the survey. When asked about the type of
    force used, 23% reported physical force, 20% reported
    that their partner shouted, 12% reported being forced
    while they were asleep, and 6% reported the use of
    threats.
    10
    Findings on the prevalence of physical and sexual
    violence by intimate partners varies greatly between
    studies. This variation can be attributed not only to the
    differences in the levels of violence between settings, but
    VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN I
    THE LANCET • Vol 359 • April 6, 2002 • www.thelancet.com
    1233
    Perpetrators
    Forced prostitution, trafficking for sex
    Acid throwing
    Abuse of widows/elder abuse
    Differential access to food/medical care
    Psychological abuse by family members
    Coerced sex/rape/harassment (including child sexual abuse) by family members
    Physical violence by family members
    FGM
    Female infanticide
    Sex-selective abortion
    Violence in pregnancy
    Non-partner coerced sex/rape/harassment (including child sexual abuse)
    Violence organised or perpetrated by states (eg, rape in war)
    Differential access to food/medical care
    Violence in pregnancy
    Psychological abuse by intimate partner
    Physical violence (by current or former partner)
    Sexual violence (by current or former partner)
    Dowry deaths/honour killings
    Family members
    Intimate partner Others
    Reproductive age
    Pre-birth Infancy Girlhood/adolescence
    Age span
    Elderly
    Figure 1:
    Violence and abuse against women over time
    FGM=female genital mutilation.

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